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Mess  Officer's 
Assistant 

PREPARED   BY 

MAJOR  L.   R.  HOLBROOK 

LATE  COMMISSARY,  U.  S.  ARMY 


Late  Director 

Army  Training   School  for   Bakers  and   Coos.5 
Fort   Riley,   Kansas 


(Eighth   Thousand) 


•»    THIRD     EDITION    «• 


U.  S.  CAVALRY  ASSOCIATION,  Fort  Leavenworth. 


WC  7 


COPYRIGHT  1917 
BY  L.  R.  HOLBROOK 


PRESS  OF 

KETCHESON   PRINTING  CO., 
LKAVENWOBTH,  KAN. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

The  first  edition  of  the  MESS  OFFICER'S 
ASSISTANT  was  prepared  in  the  early  part  of 
1908,  for  the  use  of  student  officers  taking  the 
course  at  the  Mounted  Service  School.  This 
edition  became  exhausted  some  months  ago  and 
rendered  a  complete  revision  and  re-setting  of 
the  type  necessary. 

The  subject  matter,  though  not  prepared  for 
enlisted  men,  was  found  to  be  of  such  general  in- 
terest to  Instructors  and  Student  Cooks  as  to 
cause  part  of  the  text  to  be  used  in  our  regular 
instruction. 

This  book  teaches  the  essential  principles  to 
be  followed  in  the  messing  of»  troops  and  con- 
tains much  information  of  interest  to  the  officers 
rather  than  to  the  enlisted  man.  It  should,  how- 
ever, be  constantly  studied  in  connection  with 
the  Mess  Sergeant's  Handbook  which  contains 
much  information  relative  to  the  financial  hand- 
ling of  the  mess  not  heretofore  published. 

L.  R.  HOLBROOK, 
Captain,  Commissary,  U.  S.  Army. 
January  15,  1911. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 

The  Second  Edition  having  been  exhausted, 
it  has  become  necessary  to  print  a  new  edition. 
Major  Holbrook,  being  absent  in  France,  the  new 
edition  has  been  left  to  us  to  get  out.  It  is  the 
same  as  the  old  edition  with  a  few  minor  cor- 
rections. 

U.  S.  CAVALRY  ASSOCIATION. 


INTRODUCTION. 

For  some  years  past  much  experimenting; 
has  been  carried  on  to  determine  the  most  suit- 
able ration  for  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  poultry, 
etc.,  with  a  view  to  determining  what  food  is  the 
most  economical,  with  reference  to  the  end  de- 
sired, and  today,  through  mutual  arrangements, 
between  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Commanding 
Officers  of  military  posts,  extensive  experiments 
are  being  made  on  horses  of  entire  troops  and 
batteries  to  determine  just  what  amounts  and 
kinds  of  forage  will  produce  the  best  results  com- 
mensurate with,  or  regardless  of,  cost. 

In  regard  to  human  dietary,  much  has  been 
written  and  some  experimenting  has  been  done, 
but  without  doubt  we  have  more  reliable  infor- 
mation as  to  the  manner  of  feeding  animals  than 
men.  Data^i^available  covering  experiments 
with  a  few  individuals,  and  with  small  squads  of 
men — soldiers,  students  and  athletes — and  the 
results  ably  analyzed  by  physiological  experts 
show  beyond  a  reasonable  doubt  that  people  in 


iv.        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

general  eat  too  much,  especially  of  protein  foods 
— and  that  a  more  rational  method  of  eating 
brings  about  remarkable  changes  in  one's  desire 
for  food,  both  as  regards  class  and  quantity — and 
that  many  diseases  are  curable  through  a  proper 
regulation  of  the  diet. 

In  this  little  book  no  attempt  has  been  made 
to  set  forth  new  methods  or  principles,  but  to 
clearly  announce  those  which  we  believe  should 
be  followed  in  handling  the  ration  as  now  pro- 
vided. As  desirable  as  it  may  be  to  reduce  the 
consumption  of  food  to  actual  requirements  and 
to  introduce  new  methods  of  mastication,  it  must 
be  recognized  that  our  men  are  mostly  young 
and  hardy,  and  are  daily  subject  to  strenuous  out- 
door exercise  that  enables  them  to  consume,  with 
impunity,  classes  and  quantities  of  food  that 
would  be  impossible  with  those  whose  habits  are 
quite  sedentary,  or  who  have  already  become  so 
disabled  through  improper-  dietary  habits  as  to 
force  them  to  seek  renewed  youth  and  energy  in 
new  and  well  proven^  methods. 

Our  rations  is^based  upon  what  men  under- 
going a  considerable  amount  of  labor  actually 
consume,  when  they  are  free  to  choose  their  food 
and  eat  it  in  such  quantity  and  manner  as  their 


INTRODUCTION.  v. 

inclination  suggests.  The  minimum  consumed  by 
such  people  has  been  considered  as  the  least 
amount  that  should  be  supplied  as  a  regular  diet. 
Professor  W.  O.  Atwater  placed  the  daily  re- 
quirement at  3,500  calories  for  a  man  doing 
moderate  work,  and  at  4,500  calories  for  a  man  at 
hard  work.  Professor  Chittenden  has,  how- 
ever, shown  conclusively  that  mental  and  bodily 
vigor  are  maintained  and  even  tend  to  be  greatly 
increased  on  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  food.  He 
shows  that  the  meat  proteins  especially  should  be 
reduced  much  below  that  found  in  the  ration 
allowance,  as  the  amount  of  toxins  present  in 
such  foods  are  sufficient  to  produce  injury  in  the 
system,  while  protein  itself  is  not  required  in  the 
quantity  supplied  by  the  articles  now  composing 
the  ration,  to  replace  waste  and  repair  the  muscu- 
lar tissues. 

The  time  is  not  yet  ripe,  however,  to  reduce 
our  ration  to  the  standard  established  by 
Professor  Chittenden.  The  people  at  large  will 
first  have  to  be  educated  up  to  Scientific  Nutri- 
tion, and  it  would  be  impracticable  to  change  the 
well  established  habits  of  young  and  growing 
men,  such  as  now  constitute  the  greater  part  of 
the  enlisted  strength  of  the  Army. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PARAGRAPH 

I.    HISTORY  OF  THE  RATION....  1-19 


II.    FOOD  VALUES  AND  ELEMENTARY  PRIN- 
CIPLES OF  NUTRITION...  20-35 


III.    ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKING 

AND  HANDLING  FOOD....  36-70 


IV.     THE  GARRISON  RATION...  ..  71-157 


V.     MILK,     CHEESE,     LARD,     COMPOUND, 

ETC....  ...158-211 


VI.  PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS,  BACTERIA 

AND  MOLD....  ....212-231 


VII.    BRIEF  EXTRACTS  FROM  LECTURES    BY 

THE  AUTHOR....  ....232-250 


VIII.     DEFINITIONS 251-445 

INDEX. 


The  Mess  Officer's  Assistant. 


CHAPTER  I. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  RATION. 

1.  The  ration  now  supplied  to  the  Ameri- 
can soldier  is  beyond  doubt  the  most  liberal  is- 
sued to  any  Army  in  the  world.     Congress  has 
ever  been  most   generous  in  its  appropriations 
for  subsistence,  from  time  to  time  increasing  the 
food  values  of  the  ration,  keeping  pace  with  the 
increased  demands  of  the  people  in  their  more 
elaborate  mode  of  living. 

THE  RATION  FROM  1775  TO  1834. 

2.  In  1798  the  following  ration  was  estab- 
lished by  Congress: 

Beef,  \%  pounds  per  ration. 
Bread  or  flour,  18  ounces  per  ration. 
Salt,  4  pounds  per  hundred  rations. 
Vinegar,  4  quarts  per  hundred  rations. 
Soap,  4  pounds  per  hundred  rations. 
Candles,  IX  pounds  per  hundred  rations. 


10-      -'THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 


1  •  • '  'Trieste  quantities  were  based  upon  actual 
necessity  and  were  presumed  to  be  sufficient  to 
sustain  the  soldier  while  doing  arduous  service 
in  the  field,  as  well  as  in  garrison. 

3.  The    above    ration     differed    from    that 
authorized  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and 
for  the  next  half  century,  chiefly  in  that  liquor 
was  issued  at  times,  and  certain  substitutes  were 
allowed  for  beef.     The   quantities   of  the   com- 
ponents as  stated  above  have  remained  practically 
unchanged  to  the  present  day. 

4.  The  quality  of  the  ration  then  supplied 
was  not  satisfactory  for  the  reason  that  Purchas- 
ing Agents  were  allowed  10  per  cent,  on  all  sav- 
ings made  to  the  government — thus  placing  a 
premium    on   the   purchase    of  inferior  articles. 
Later  the  entire  ration  was  supplied  by  contract 
and  this  was  even  more  unsatisfactory. 


THE  RATION  FROM  1834  TO  1861. 

5.  Although  since  1818  the  President  has 
been  authorized  to  make  such  alterations  in  the 
ration  as  due  regard  to  the  health  and  comfort 


HISTORY  OF  THE  RATION.  11 

of  the  Army  and  economy  required,  little  advan- 
tage has  been  taken  under  this  authority  to  in- 
crease the  ration,  as  additional  Congressional 
appropriations  are  equally  necessary. 

6.  However,   in   1834  the  President  substi- 
tuted 4  pounds  of  coffee  and  8  pounds  of  sugar 
for  the  liquor  component,  and  this  was  increased 
in  1838  by  Act  of  Congress  to  6  pounds  of  coffee 
and  12  pounds  of  sugar  per  100  rations  "when  it 
can  be   done  to   the   covenience   of   the   Public 
Service,  and  when  not   so   issued  to  be  paid  in 
money."     This  was   the  beginning   of  the  now 
well   established   custom   of  making   "savings," 
and  it  has  since  been  favorably  passed  upon  by 
the  Supreme  Court. 

7.  In   1860  the  allowance  of  coffee  was  in- 
creased to  10  pounds    and  of  sugar  to  15,  and 
prior  to  the  Civil  War  the   bean  component  was 
added. 

8.  In   1861   the  allowance  of  flour   was   in- 
creased to  22  ounces,   and  an  issue  of  potatoes 
was  authorized  three  times  a  week.     The  ration 
of  tea  was  fixed  as  at  present  and  allowed  to  be 
drawn  in  the  place  of  coffee —  such  increase  in 
the  ration  to  be  continued  during  the  war. 


12        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT., 
THE  RATION  FROM  1861  TO  1908. 

9.  This  ration  was,   however,   reported  up- 
on in   1864  as  being  in  excess  of  the  soldiers' 
needs  and  was  reduced  to  that  issued  prior  to 
1861,  with  the  exception  of  4  ounces  of  pepper 
per  hundred  rations,  which    was    authorized  in 
1863  and  has  continued  as  a  part  of  the  ration 
to  the  present  day.     Incident  to  this  reduction 
of  the  ration  there  was  a  corresponding  increase 
in  the  soldiers'  pay  for  the  reason  that  all  savings 
then  accrued  to  the  Post  and  Regimental  Funds 
and  not  to  the  immediate  benefit  of  the  organiza- 
tion or  soldiers  upon  whom  the  saving  was  made. 

10.  An  extra  allowance  of  one  gill  of  whiskey 
for  men  undergoing  hard  labor  or  excessive  fatigue 
was   authorized   by   Act   of   Congress   in    1819, 
and  disappeared  in  1878,  since  which  time  the 
issue  of  whiskey  as  a  part  of  the  ration  has  not 
been  authorized. 

11.  In    1890   one  pound   of  fresh   vegetables 
was  added  to  the  ration,  and  in  1899  12^  pounds 
of  dried  fruit  for  each  100  rations  (later  being 
reduced  to  10  pounds,  and  by  the  ration  authorized 
May  1,  1908,  to  8  pounds.) 


HISTORY  OF  THE  RATION.  13 

12.  In  1901  the  allowance  of  sugar  was  in- 
creased to  20  pounds  per  100  rations.     No  other 
changes  in  the  Garrison  Ration  occurred  until 
May  1,  1908. 

KINDS  OF  RATIONS. 

13.  Prior  to  1878  there  was  but  one  ration 
for  all  purposes  known  to  regulations,  although 
during  the  Civil  War  a  "Marching  Ration"  is 
often  referred  to,  and  consisted  of  salt  beef  or 
bacon,  hard  bread,  coffee  and  sugar. 

14.  The    Travel   Ration   was   established   in 
1878. 

15.  The  Emergency  Ration  was  established 
in  1896  and  then  corresponded  very  closely  to 
the  "Haversack  Ration"  of  today,  but  it  was 
soon  superseded  by  a  desiccated  mixture  molded 
into  cakes  and  hermetically  sealed  in  one-pound 
cans  with  a  certain  amount  of  salt,  pepper  and 
coffee,    or    chocolate.     The    present    Emergency 
Ration  consists  of  three  cakes  of  chocolate  to 
which  a  small  percentage  of  sugar,  malted  milk 
and  egg  has  been  added  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture.    The  weight  is  8  ounces  and  fuel  value, 
about  1,300  calories. 


14         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

16.  The    Field    Ration    was    established    in 
1901,  although  prior  to  this  time  certain  changes 
were  made  in  the  "ration"  for  field  service. 

17.  The  Haversack  Ration  was  established  in 
1908.     (It  is  now  called  the  Reserve  Ration,  and 
the  former  term  is  no  longer  used.) 

18.  The  Garrison  Ration  as  now  constituted 
was  established  in  May,  1908,  and  passed  to  the 
cash  credit  basis  July  1,  1910.     (See  Par.  4,  Mess 
Sergeant's  Handbook.) 

19.  It  is  noted  that  in  1819  it  was  declared 
on  the  floors  of  Congress  that  the  ration  was 
amply  sufficient — since  which  time  it  has  been 
decreased    by    the    liquor    component    only,    while 
it  has  been  increased  by  the  coffee,  sugar,  bean, 
fresh    vegetable,    dried   fruit,    syrup,    lard,    butter 
and  milk  components,  in  addition  to  baking  powder, 
various   seasonings   and   extracts,   besides   substi- 
tuting  turkey  or  chicken  for  beef  on  holidays, 
while  many  substitutive  articles  have  been  author- 
ized for  issue  when,  in  the  opinion  of  the  com- 
manding officer,  such  issue  is  necessary  for  the 
health  of  the  troops.     This  elaborate  ration  was 
based  almost  entirely  upon  actual  requirements, 
as  determined  from  data  kept  for  three  years  at 


THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  RATION.  15 

the  Army  Training  School  for  Bakers  and  Cooks 
at  Fort  Riley,  Kansas.  The  quantities  of  the 
various  classes  of  foods,  i.  e.,  meat,  flour,  vege- 
tables, coffee,  sugar,  etc.,  are  about  right  for  sup- 
plying a  well-balanced  diet  (though  not  in  all 
cases  quite  sufficient),  and  it  is  hoped  that,  since 
the  garrison  ration  has  passed  to  a  strictly  cash 
basis,  it  will  be  purchased  in  about  the  quantities 
in  which  it  was  formerly  issued,  and  as  fully  ex- 
plained in  the  Mess  Sergeant's  Handbook. 


CHAPTER  II. 

FOOD    VALUES    AND    ELEMENTARY 
PRINCIPLES  OF  NUTRITION. 

20.  It  is  impracticable  to  make  more  than 
the  briefest  mention  of  the  Principles  of  Nutri- 
tion and  the  Nutritive  Values  of  Food.     Very 
complete   and   satisfactory   information   on   this 
subject  may  be  secured  from  Bulletins  Nos.  34 
and  142,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  upon 
which    many    of   the   following    statements    are 
based.* 

21.  A    WELL    BALANCED    RATION    is 

one  that  supplies  proper  nourishment  to  the  body 
without  having  any  component  greatly  in  excess 
of  the  requirements.  The  term  is  full  of  scien- 
tific significance  but  conveys  little  meaning  to  the 
average  person. 

It  would  be  impracticable  to  lay  down  a  par- 
ticular diet  by  weights  that  could  be  said  to  es- 
tablish the  exact  amount  of  protein,  fats,  carbo- 

*See  also  Wiley's,  "Foods  and  Their  Adulteration," 
Hutchisons's  "Foods  and  Dietetics,"  and  various  books  on 
"Military  Hygiene." 

16 


FOOD  VALUES— NUTRITION.  17 

hydrates,  etc.,  required  for  any  particular  per- 
son— much  less  for  a  company  of  soldiers  whose 
habits  and  labors  vary  from  those  of  the  seden- 
tary clerk  to  the  hard  working  horseshoer  or  the 
enthusiastic  athlete. 

In  general,  however,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  during  periods  of  inactivity  the  meat  com- 
ponent of  the  ration  should  be  reduced,  and  that 
beans  and  heavy  fruit  puddings  should  be  used 
less  frequently.  At  such  times  fresh  fruit  and 
vegetables  should  constitute  a  relatively  greater 
portion  of  the  ration  consumed,  and  greater  care 
should  be  exercised  in  preparing  and  serving  the 
food.  Savory  odors  and  palatable  seasoning  will 
stimulate  the  appetite  and  start  the  flow  of  diges- 
tive juices  when  tne  pangs  of  hunger  are  bridled 
by  inaction  or  sedentary  habits.  Moreover  a 
constant  variety  of  food  must  be  supplied  at  all 
times.  Prisoners  have  been  known  to  vomit  at 
the  sight  of  food  served  in  the  same  form  for 
indefinite  periods. 

In  regard  to  the  company  mess  it  may  be 
said  that  as  a  rule  the  appetite  of  the  average 
soldier  is  good  and  requires  no  special  stimulus. 


18          THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

If  the  meals  are.  properly  prepared  he  frequently 
takes  too  much  food  on  his  plate,  and  eats  too 
fast  and  too  much  for  his  own  good. 

22.  A  ONE-SIDED  DIET  is  one  in  which 
one  or  more  compounds  are  supplied  in  much 
smaller    quantity   than   is    required    for   proper 
nourishment.     As  a  result  the  digestive  organs 
are  overloaded  with  superfluous  materials  in  order 
to  provide  proper  sustenance.     For  example,  the 
vegetarian  often  overworks  the  digestive  organs 
in  order  to  provide  the  necessary  amount  of  muscle 
making   material.     Many    tribes    of    uncivilized 
people  and  certain  classes  of  poor  people  are 
either  underfed  or  are  forced  to  eat  great  quanti- 
ties of  a  relatively  plentiful  article  in  order  to 
supply  the  necessary  nutrition,  but  the  soldier's 
ration  is  selected  for  him,  the  food  elements  are 
presumed-  to  be  in  about  the  proper  proportions 
and  generally  in  sufficient  quantity. 

23.  FOOD  by  definition  includes  all  those 
substances  that  build  up  the  tissues,  restore  waste, 
or  furnish  heat  or  energy.     From  25  to  30  dif- 
ferent elements  are  found  in  the  body,  the  most 
important  being  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  nitro- 
gen,   calcium,    phosphorus    and    sulphur.     Both 


FOOD  VALUES— NUTRITION.  19 

in  our  bodies  and  in  the  food  we  eat  these  ele- 
ments are,  however,  combined  into  certain  com- 
pounds, the  most  important  of  which  are  water, 
protein,  fats,  carbohydrates,  and  mineral  matters. 
The  body  of  the  average  man  contains  about 
60  per  cent,  of  water,  18  per  cent,  of  protein,  15 
per  cent,  of  fats,  6  per  cent,  of  mineral  matters, 
and  1  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates. 

24.  WATER   neither   builds   up   the   tissue 
nor  supplies  heat  nor  energy  and  hence  cannot 
be  termed  food,   though  it  is  indispensable  to 
our  existence.     Forty  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  water 
is  found  in  the  ordinary  cut  of  beef,  the  quantity 
decreasing    with    the    amount    of    fat    present. 
Therefore   a   piece   of  meat   containing   a   good 
distribution  of  fat  has  a  greater  fuel  value  than 
an  equal  amount  of  solid  lean  meat.     (See  table 
of    food    values    following).     Fresh    vegetables 
often  contain  from  80  per  cent,  to  90  per  cent. 
of  water,  and  dried  seeds  and  cereals  as  low  as 
from  10  per  cent,  to  12  per  cent.     These  however, 
take  up  a  large  percentage  of  water  in  the  pro- 
cess of  cooking. 

25.  PROTEIN  compounds  are  known  as  the 
muscle  builders.     They  include : 

(a)     The  Albuminoids  which  are  found  in 


20        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

great  quantities  in  lean  meat,  whites  of  eggs, 
gluten  of  wheat,  curd  of  milk,  etc.,  and  whose 
chief  function  is  in  building  up  the  tissues  and 
restoring  waste. 

(6)  The  Gelatinoids,  which  are  found  in  great 
quantities  in  the  tendons,  connective  tissues, 
skin,  etc.  It  is  not  believed  that  they  build 
up  the  tissues,  but  rather  that  they  protect  the 
albuminoids  by  reason  of  being  more  readily 
transformed  into  heat  and  energy. 

(c)  The  Extractives,  which  are  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  beef  stock,  beef  extracts  and  beef 
tea.  (See  definitions.)  They  neither  build  up 
the  tissues  jnor  supply  heat  nor  energy,  but  act 
rather  as  stimulants  and  appetizers.  The  crav- 
ing for  meats,  especially  in  the  tropics,  is  pre- 
sumed to  be  largely  on  account  of  the  extractives 
contained  in  them. 

26.  FATS  occur  chiefly  in  the  meats,  but- 
ter, milk,  cereals,  and  nuts.  They  may  be  con- 
sumed as  fuel,  but  it  is  believed  that  they  are 
generally  stored  in  the  body  as  a  reserve  source 
of  energy  to  be  used  when  the  normal  supply  of 
ordinary  fuel  (the  carbohydrates)  is  insufficient. 


FOOD  VALUES— NUTRITION.  21 

Fat  is  the  most  concentrated  form  of  body  fuel, 
and  its  high  calorific  value  (Par.  34)  explains 
the  economy  of  nature  in  storing  it  as  a  reserve 
in  the  body. 

The  Eskimos  consume  large  amounts  of  fat 
daily  for  the  simple  reason  that  they  require  a 
great  deal  of  body  heat  and  nature  has  provided 
great  quantities  of  it  for  them  in  the  seal,  walrus, 
etc. 

Soldiers  serving  in  Alaska  require  more  heat 
foods  than  others,  and  consequently  the  bacon 
and  fresh  vegetable  components  of  the  ration  have 
been  materially  increased  for  this  service. 

27.  CARBOHYDRATES.  The  carbohy- 
drates are  the  great  energy  producers.  If  not 
required  for  immediate  use  they  may  be  trans- 
formed into  fat  and  remain  stored  in  the  body  in 
this  concentrated  form  until  required  for  use. 
They  are  found  chiefly  in  such  vegetable  foods 
as  flour,  rice,  potatoes,  etc.,  and  in  fruits,  in  the 
form  of  starch,  sugar  and  fibers  (or  cellulose). 
In  young  vegetables  these  fibers  are  quite  easy 
of  digestion  but  if  matured  they  appear  in  the 


22         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

form  of  toughened  strings  called  woody  fiber — 
and  can  be  broken  down  only  by  a  long  process 
of  cooking.  If  taken  into  the  stomach  while  raw 
or  partially  cooked  they  are  unfit  for  food  and 
are  practically  indigestible. 

28.  MINERAL  MATTERS.       Mineral  in- 
gredients are  found  not  only  in  the  bones  and 
teeth,  but  also  in  the  muscles  and  circulation. 
They  are  generally  supplied  with  the  ordinary 
foods  in  sufficient  quantity  but  yield  little  or  no 
energy  though  like  water  they  are  necessary  for 
our  existence.     When  food,  or  the  body,  is  burned 
the  mineral  ingredients  remain  as  ash. 

29.  REFUSE   AND   WASTE.      That    por- 
tion of  the  food  supplied  and  not  generally  con- 
sidered as  suitable  to  eat,  or  if  eaten,  is  not  di- 
gested, is  termed  refuse.     It  may  include  decayed 
portions    of    vegetables,    or    their    husks,    hulls, 
skins,  etc.,  stones  and  seeds  of  fruits,  bones  of 
fish,   etc.,   etc.     The  refuse  frequently   contains 
the  same  ingredients  as  the  edible  portion,  but  in 
such  form  that  it  may  be  difficult  to  eat,  indigest- 
ible,  or  of  an  objectionable  flavor.     For    these 
reasons,  the  value  of  a  food  to  the  system  is  not 
always   accurately   measured   by   the   expressed 


FOOD  VALUES— NUTRITION.  23 

calorific  value.  Refuse  should  not  be  confused 
with  waste,  i.  e.,  with  food  that  should  generally 
be  served  and  consumed,  but  which,  through 
haste,  carelessness,  indifference  or  extravagance, 
finds  its  way  to  the  garbage  can. 

30.  CONDIMENTS.     The  condiments  (seas- 
onings) possess  little  actual  food  value,  but  are 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  making  food  more 
palatable.     In  doing  so  they  stimulate  the  flow 
of   the   digestive   juices   and   by   their   presence 
render  the  food  more  easily  and  completely  di- 
gested.    Among  the  condiments,  salt  occupies  a 
unique  position  in  that  it  is  the  only  mineral  that 
has  a  food  value.     It  supplies  the  hydrochloric 
acid   without    which   digestion   in   the   stomach 
could  not  take  place.     Hence  it  is  indispensable. 

31.  DOUBLE    FUNCTION    OF    FOODS. 
Protein,  fats,  and  carbohydrates  may  all  be  con- 
sumed to  supply  energy  if  necessary,  though  pro- 
tein alone  can  build  up  the  tissues.     Carbohy- 
drates, fats,  and  gelatinoids  are  first  called  upon  to 
supply  energy,  thus  protecting  the  muscular  tis- 
sues (albuminoids)  to  the  last     Emaciated  men 
and   horses  returning  from   active  field   service 
are  familiar  examples  illustrating  the  loss  of  fat 


24         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

and  muscular  tissue  consumed  to  furnish  much 
of  the  heat  and  energy  that  normally  would  have 
been  supplied  by  the  fats  and  carbohydrates  of  a 
proper  diet. 

32.  BREAKFAST  FOODS.  Such  foods 
made  from  wheat,  corn,  oats,  etc.,  are  placed  on 
the  market  in  the  form  of  "nuts"  or  "flakes"  can 
have  no  nutritive  property  not  found  in  the  flour 
or  meal  from  which  they  are  derived,  and  the 
claims  of  the  manufacturers  for  superior  nutri- 
tion are  considered  more  or  less  ridiculous.  Such 
concentrated  foods  are  generally  eaten  with 
great  quantities  of  milk  (or  cream)  and  sugar, 
which  add  enormously  to  the  food  value  of  this 
part  of  the  meal.  The  retail  prices  of  specially 
prepared  breakfast  foods  are  from  two  to  five 
times  greater  than  those  of  the  ordinary  cereal 
products,  and  if  the  latter  are  properly  prepared 
in  cooking,  evidence  derived  from  experiments 
does  not  indicate  any  difference  in  the  thorough- 
ness with  which  they  are  digested,  nor  in  their 
nutritive  value.  It  is  not  considered  that  "con- 
centrated" of  "  predigested "  products  possess 
any  special  advantage  as  a  food  for  a  healthy 
man.  If  specially  relished  they  may  be  eaten  for 


FOOD  VALUES— NUTRITION.  25 

variety,  as  any  other  palatable  food,  for  they  are 
seldom  adulterated.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, a  certain  amount  of  bulk  is  considered  nec- 
essary for  the  proper  peristaltic  action  of  the  in- 
testines, and  it  is  believed  that  healthy  digestive 
organs  should  perform  a  normal  amount  of  labor, 
as  well  as  the  brain  and  the  muscular  tissue. 

33.  BRAIN  WORK  AND  ITS  RELATION 
TO  FOOD.     While  intellectual  activity  is  some- 
what dependent  upon  the  materials  selected  by 
the  brain  from  the  blood  circulated  through  it, 
the   particular    substances   and    quantities    con- 
sumed  are   unknown.     Hence,    little   confidence 
should  be  placed  in  articles  sold  on  the  market  as 
"Brain  Foods." 

34.  FUEL    VALUE.     The    following    gen- 
eral estimate  has  been  made  for  the  energy  fur- 
nished to  the  body: 

Protein,  fuel  value,  4  calories  per  gram,  or 
1,820  calories  per  pound. 

Carbohydrates,  fuel  value,  4  calories  per  gram, 
or  1,820  calories  per  pound. 

Fats,  fuel  value,  8.9  calories  per  gram,  or  4,040 
calories  per  pound. 


26         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  energy 
given  off  from  the  body  as  heat  when  the  man 
is  at  rest,  or  as  heat  and  mechanical  work  to- 
gether, if  he  is  working,  exactly  equals  the  latent 
energy  of  the  material  burned  in  the  body.  This 
has  been  verified  by  many  accurate  experiments. 


TABLE  OF  FOOD  VALUES. 

35.  The  table  on  pages  28  and  29,  is  of  special 
interest  when  comparing  the  usefulness  to  the 
system  of  different  classes  of  foods,  or  when 
determining  the  relative  value  of  substitutive 
articles.  For  example,  in  order  to  keep  down  the 
expenses  of  a  mess,  and  to  add  variety,  it  may 
be  desirable  to  substitute  beans  for  meat  on  cer- 
tain days.  In  both  cases,  potatoes  would  prob- 
ably be  served,  but  when  beans  are  placed  on  the 
bill  of  fare,  they  may  not  only  take  the  place  of 
meat,  but  also  of  a  "  second  vegetable,"  as  onions, 
tomatoes,  turnips,  cabbage,  etc. 

Assume  a  mess  of  100  men,  and  that  for  the 
noon  meal  they  consume  45  pounds  of  solid  beef, 
and  as  a  second  vegetable,  25  pounds  of  onions 
(See  Par.  14,  Mess  Sergeant's  Handbook.) 


FOOD  VALUES— NUTRITION.  27 


From  the  tables  of  food  values  we  note : 

45  (pounds  round),   x  890  (calories)  =40,050  calories. 
25  (pounds  onions),  x  230  (calories)=  5,750  calories. 


Total 45,800  calories. 

Now  substitute  a  mess  of  beans  for  the 
above;  twenty-five  pounds  of  beans  and  five 
pounds  of  bacon  (for  fat  and  flavor)  is  considered 
sufficient. 

From  the  tables  of  food  values  we  note : 

25  (pounds  beans),  x  1,520    (calories)  =38, 000  calories. 
5  (pounds  bacon),  x  2,715  (calories)  =  13, 575  calories. 

Total 51,575  calories. 

Assuming  that  the  latter  are  as  fully  digested 
as  the  meat  and  onions,  it  would  seem  that  the 
ordinary  addition  of  from  20  to  25  pounds  of 
bacon  is  not  only  unnecessary,  but  an  expensive 
luxury. 

In  the  same  way  it  may  be  shown  that  mac- 
aroni and  cheese  may  be  used  as  a  satisfactory 
substitute  for  meat,  and  practical  results  bear  out 
our  theoretical  deduction.  In  either  case,  the 
amount  of  protein  (muscle  building  material) 
and  of  fat  and  carbohydrates  (energy  produ- 
cers) compare  favorably  with  that  found  in  the 
meat.  In  the  same  way  we  may  show  that  fresh 
garden  truck  should  not  constitute  the  bulk  of 
any  meal,  or  compare  the  fuel  value  of  coffee, 
cocoa,  chocolate,  etc. 


Average  Composition  and  Fuel  Value  of  Common  Food  Products 


Food  materials  as  purchased 

Ref- 
use. 

Wa- 
ter. . 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat 

Car- 

bohy 
dra- 
tes. 

Ash 

Fuel 
value 
per 
Ib. 

Animal  Food. 

Beef,  fresh: 
Porterhouse  steak  
Ribs 

PER 

CENT. 

12.7 
20  8 

PER 
CENT. 

52.4 

43  8 

PER 

CENT. 

19.1 
13  9 

PER 
CENT. 

17.9 
21.2 

PER 
CENT. 

PER 
CENT. 

.8 

.7 

CALO- 
RIES. 

1,100 
1,135 

R  ound  
Fore  quarter 

7.2 
18.7 

60.7 
49  1 

19.0 
14  5 

12.8 
17.5 

1.0 

.7 

890 
995 

Hind  quarter  
Beef  corned 

15.7 
8.4 

50.4 
49.2 

15.4 
14  3 

18.3 
23.8 

.7 
4.6 

1,045 
1,245 

Veal: 
Fore  quarter  
Hind  quarter 

24.5 
20.7 

54.2 
56  2 

15.1 
16  2 

6.0 
6  6 

.7 
.8 

535 

580 

Mutton  : 
Fore  quarter  
Hind  quarter 

21.2 
17  2 

41.6 
45  4 

12.3 
13  8 

24.5 
23  2 

.7 

.7 

1,235 
1  210 

Pork,  fresh: 
Ham 

10.7 

48  0 

13  5 

25  9 

.8 

1  320 

Shoulder 

12  4 

44  9 

12  0 

29  8 

7 

1  450 

Pork,    salted,    cured    and 
pickled  : 
Ham,  smoked  
Salt  pork 

13.6 

34.8 
7  9 

14.2 
1  9 

33.4 

86  2 

4.2 
3.9 

1,635 
3  555 

Bacon,  smoked  
Sausage: 
Pork  

7.7 

17.4 
39.8 

9.1 
13.0 

62.2 

44.2 

1.1 

4.1 

2.2 

2,715 
2,075 

Soups: 
Beef 

92  9 

4  4 

4 

1    1 

1  2 

120 

Tomato  
Poultry  : 
Fowls  

25.9 

90.0 
47.1 

1.8 
13.7 

1.1 
12.3 

5.9 

1.5 

.7 

185 
765 

Turkey  
Fish: 
Mackerel,  whole  fresh  

22.7 
44.7 

42.4 
40.4 

16.1 
10  2 

18.4 
4.2 

.8 

.7 

1,060 
370 

Shad,  whole,  fresh  
Cod,  salt  
Salmon,  canned  
Oysters,  "solid"  

50.1 
24.9 

35.2 
40.2 
63.5 

88.3 

9.4 
16.0 

21.8 
6.0 

4.8 
.4 
12.1 
1.3 

"   3.3 

18^5 
2.6 
1.1 

380 
325 
915 
225 

Eggs:     Hen's  eggs  
Dairy  Products,  etc.  : 
Butter  
Whole  milk  
Skim  milk 

11.2 

65.5 

11.0 
87.0 
90  5 

13.1 

1.0 
3.3 

3  4 

9.3 

85.0 
4.0 
3 

"5.0 
5  1 

.9 

3.0 

.7 
7 

635 

3,410 
310 
165 

Condensed  milk  
Cream 

26.9 
740 

8.8 
2  5 

8.3 
18  5 

54.1 
4  5 

1.9 
5 

1,430 
865 

Cheese,  full  cream  

34.2 

25.9 

33.7 

2.4 

3.8 

1,885 

Vegetable  Food. 

Flour,  meal,  etc.  : 
Graham  flour  
Wheat  flour,  pat.  roller 
process  —  High    grade 
and  medium    . 

11.3 
12  0 

13.3 
11  4 

2.2 
1  0 

71.4 
75  i 

1.8 
5 

1,645 
1  635 

Low  grade  

12.0 

14.0 

1.9 

71.2 

.9 

1,640 

28 


Average  Composition  and  Fuel  Value  of  Common  Food  Products 


Food  materials  as  purchased 

Ref- 
use. 

Wa- 
ter. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat 

Car- 
bohy 
dra- 
tes. 

Ash 

Fuel 
value 
per 
Ib. 

Vegetable  Food—  Con. 

Macaroni,  vermicelli,  etc.. 
Rye  flour  
Cora  meal  ' 
Oat  breakfast  food  
Rice 

PER 
CENT. 

PER 
CENT. 

10.3 

12.  9 
12.5 

7.7 
12.3 

PER 
CENT. 

13.4 

6.8 
9.2 
16.7 
8  0 

PER 
CENT. 

.9 

.9 
1.9 
7.3 
3 

PER 

CENT. 

74.1 

78.7 
75.4 
66.2 
79  0 

PER 
CENT. 

1.3 

.7 
1.0 
2.1 
4 

CALO- 
RIES. 

1,645 
1,620 
1,635 
1,800 
1  620 

Tapioca  
Starch 

11.4 

.4 

.1 

88.0 
90  0 

.1 

1,65O 

1,745 

Bread,  pastry,  etc: 
White  bread  
Graham  bread  
Rye  bread 

35.3 
35.7 
35.7 

9.2 
8.9 
9  0 

1.3 
1.8 
6 

53.1 
52.1 
53  2 

1.1 
1.5 
1  5 

1,200 
1,195 
1  170 

Sugars,  etc.: 
Sir-lasses 

70  0 

1.225 

Sugar,  granulated  

100.0 

1,750 

Maple  sirup  
Vegetables: 
Beans,  dried  

12.6 

22.5 

1.8 

71.4 
59.6 

3.5 

1,250 
1,520 

Beans,  Lima,  shelled  
Beets  
Cabbage  
Celery  
Corn,  green  (sAveet)  edible 
portion  
Cucumbers  ;  
Lettuce 

'  20.6 
15.0 
20.0 

'  15.0 
15  0 

68.5 
70.0 

77.7 
75.6 

75.4 
81.1 
80.5 

7.1 
1.3 
1.4 
.9 

3.1 

.7 
1  0 

.7 
.1 
.2 
.1 

.11 
.2 
2 

22.0 

7.7 
4.8 
2.6 

19.7 
2.6 
2  5 

1.7 
.9 
.9 

.8 

.7 
.4 
.8 

540 
160 
115 
65 

440 

65 
65 

Onions  
Parsnips 

10.0 
20.0 

78.9 
66.4 

1.4 
1  3 

.3 

.4 

8.9 
10  8 

.5 
1.1 

190 
230 

Peas,  dried  

9.5 

24.6 

1.0 

62.0 

29 

1,565 

Potatoes  
R  hubarb  
Sweet  potatoes 

200 
40.0 
20  0 

62.6 
56.6 
55.2 

1.8 
.4 
1  4 

.1 
4 
6 

14.7 
2.2 
21  9 

.8 
.4 
9 

295 
60 
440 

Squash  
Tomatoes 

50.0 

44.2 
94  3 

.7 
9 

.2 
4 

45 
3  9 

.4 
.5 

100 
100 

Turnips  
Fruits,  etc.,  fresh: 
Apples  
Bananas  
Muskmelons.  
Oranges  
Watermelon  
Fruits,  dried: 
Apples 

30.0 

25.0 
35.0 
50.0 
27.0 
59  4 

62.7 

63.3 

48.9 
44.8 
63.4 
37.5 

28.1 

.9 

.3 
.8 
.3 
.« 
.2 

1  6 

.1 

.3 

.4 
.  ...... 

.1 
2  1 

57 

10.8 
14.3 
4.6 
S.5 
2.7 

66  1 

.6 

.3 
.6 
.3 
.4 

.4 

2.0 

120 

190 
260 
80 
150 
50 

1,185 

A  pricots  
Miscellaneous 
Chocolate  
Cocoa,  powdered  
Cereal   coffee,   infusion    (1 
part  boiled  in  20  parts 
water)  

29.4 

5.9 
4.6 

98.2 

4.7 

124 
21.6 

.2 

1.0 

487 
28.9 

62.5 

30.3 
37.7 

1.4 

2.4 

2.2 

7.2 

.2 

1,125 

5,625 
2.160 

30 

29 


CHAPTER  III. 

ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES  OF  COOKING 
AND  HANDLING  FOOD. 

36.  OBJECT  OF  COOKING.     Before  foods 
can  be  taken  up  and  used  in  the  system,  they 
must  be  changed  into  forms  more  soluble  than 
those  in  which  they  appear  in  the  raw  state. 

37.  Fruits  when  ripening  on  the  trees  un- 
dergo   certain  changes — analogous  to  cooking — 
in  which  the  component  parts  are  transformed 
into  more  digestible  elements.     Similar  changes 
may  take  place  as  a  result  of  cooking  or  baking, 
or  when  the  food  is  acted  upon  by  the  digestive 
juices. 

38.  Food  is  cooked  to  develop  certain  fla- 
vors, to  make  it  more  palatable,  and  to  kill  dis- 
ease germs  or  parasites  should  they  be  present. 
Generally  the  more  civilized  a  people  the  more 
advanced  they  are  in  matters  pertaining  to  the 
preparation  of  food. 

39.  METHODS  OF  COOKING.     The  ob- 
ject to  be  attained  will  often  decide,  the  manner 

of  cooking.     For  example,  in  roasting  meat  we 
'    30 


ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES.  31 

desire  to  retain  the  juices  within.  Hence  the 
meat  is  placed  in  a  very  hot  oven,  to  seal  the 
pores  and  prevent  the  escape  of  the  juices,  the 
oven  being  reduced  to  a  lower  temperature  when 
the  meat  has  been  thoroughly  browned. 

40.  If  we  desire  to  make  beef  stock  we  first 
place  the  bones  and  fresh  meat  in  cold  water 
for  some  time,  as  the  juices  of  the  bones  and 
meat  are  readily  extracted  in  this  manner.     The 
process  is  hastened  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
salt. 

41.  If  a  stew  or  pot  pie  is  made,  we  wish 
to  have  a  part  of  the  meat  juices  retained  in  the 
meat  and  a  part  in  the  surrounding  liquid ;  hence, 
we  place  the  meat  in  cold  water,  but  bring  it 
to  a  boil  as  soon  as  possible  in  order  to  seal  the 
pores  after  a   certain  amount   of  the  juice  has 
been  extracted,  and  retain  the  remainder  within 
the  meat. 

42.  If  we  want   the  best   quality  of  boiled 
beef,  we  desire  to  retain  the  juices  within  the 
meat,   and  the  water  is   made  to  boil  briskly 
before  the  meat  is  introduced.     Upon  contact 
with  the  hot  water  the  pores  are  sealed,   and 
the  temperature  may  be  lowered,  and  the  cook- 
ing continued  at  a  simmering  temperature. 


32        THE  MESS  OFFICERS'  ASSISTANT. 

43.  SIZE    OF   ARTICLES.     The   time   re- 
quired for  cooking  any  article  depends  upon  its 
size;  consequently,  when  several  pieces  of  meat 
are  roasted  in  the  same  pan,   or  when  potatoes 
are  baked  together  in  the  same  oven,  an  effort 
should  be  made  to  have  them  of  about  the  same 
size. 

44.  REASON  FOR  UNIFORM  TEXTURE. 
It  is  owing  to  the  maintenance  of  an  even  tem- 
perature in  the  presence  of  moisture  that  it  is 
possible  to  make  bread,  cakes,  meat  balls,  fritters, 
etc.,  of  the  same  even  texture  throughout,  while 
a  thin  brown  crust  is  formed  on  the  surface.     It 
has  been  shown  by  the  use  of  a  maximum  ther- 
mometer that  while  the  temperature  of  a  baking 
oven  is  about  450  degrees  Fahr.,  the  temperature 
within  a  loaf  of  bread  while  baking  never  rises 
appreciably  above  212  degrees  Fahr., — the  highest 
temperature  of  free  steam. 

45.  TEMPERATURE  OF  BAKING,  ETC. 
Frequently  too  little  attention  is   paid  to   the 
proper  temperature  of  the  oven  and  the  general 
character  of  the  meat  or  other  article  to  be  cooked. 
For  example,  a  temperature  that  is  exactly  right 
for  browning  a  roast  would  ruin  a  fruit  cake  in 
a  few  minutes.     To  properly  roast  an  old  tough 


ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES.  33 

piece  of  meat  requires  a  "slow"  oven  and  much 
time  in  order  to  permit  the  heat  to  penetrate 
to  the  center  and  thoroughly  dissolve  and  break 
down  the  tissues  and  thus  make  it  "tender", 
while  a  small  tender  piece  of  meat  could  be 
roasted  in  a  "quick"  oven.  It  is  this  principle 
of  slow  cooking  in  a  moderately  low  temperature 
for  a  long  period  that  renders  the  "Fireless 
Cookers"  so  much  superior  to  anything  else 
for  certain  kinds  of  work — especially  that  of 
cooking  old  tough  meat  until  it  is  "as  tender  as 
chicken." 

46.  HOW  TO  DETERMINE  THE  TEM- 
PERATURE OF  AN  OVEN.  The  only  prac- 
tical method  of  getting  the  temperature  of  an 
oven  is  to  insert  the  hand  well  into  it  and  count 
the  number  of  seconds  that  you  are  able  to  keep 
it  there.  (See  definition  of  oven  counts,  Par. 
391).  The  burning  sensation  experienced  about 
the  roots  of  the  nails  is  sufficiently  uniform  in 
those  performing  the  duty  of  a  cook  to  render  this 
a  reliable  method  and  it  should  be  followed  by 
the  experienced  chef  as  well  as  by  the  student  cook. 
If  the  temperature  of  the  oven  is  somewhat 
greater  than  anticipated,  food  will  often  give  all 


34         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

the  appearances  of  being  well  done  when,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  cooking  has  barely  begun. 
For  this  reason  a  cook  should  have  some  idea  as 
to  the  "times"  of  cooking,  as  well  as  to  oven  tern-' 
peratures,  and  tables  have  been  prepared  and  are 
inserted  in  the  Mess  Sergeant's  Handbook. 

47.  COLD    is    useful    in    preventing    fer- 
mentation and  hence  is  a  preservative  of  food. 
We  constantly  make  use  of  this  fact  by  placing 
butter,  milk,  meats,  etc.,  in  the  ice  box,  by  stor- 
ing certain  vegetables  and  fruits  in  root    cellar 
and  pits  in  the  ground,  in  preserving  yeast  by 
keeping  it  in  a  cool  place  and  in  stopping  the 
further   proving    (rising)    of   dough   when   it   is 
ready  to  bake  before  the  oven  is  ready  to  re- 
ceive it.     Fresh  meat  will  keep  better  in  a  moder- 
ately cool,  dry  place  than  in  a  damp  ice  box  at  a 
much  lower  temperature.     However,  should  hot 
weather  require  the  use  of  the  ice  box,  the  meat 
should  not  come  in  contact  with  the  walls  nor 
with  the  ice. 

48.  Cold   water   keeps  fresh   vegetables   from 
wilting.     It  quickly  restores  such   garden  truck 
as  radishes,  lettuce,  onions,  etc.,  that  may  have 
been  exposed  to  the  sun  after  gathering,  or  have 


ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES.  35 

been  left  in  a  warm  temperature  for  a  time,  render- 
ing them  fresh,  crisp  and  wholesome.  Potatoes 
and  turnips  that  have  been  peeled  must  be  placed 
in  cold  water  to  keep  them  crisp  and  to  prevent 
them  from  becoming  discolored  and  tough. 
If  cooked  while  wilted,  and  discolored,  they 
retain  their  discoloration  and  toughness  to  a  con- 
siderable extent. 

49.  Cold  water  draws  out  certain  undesir- 
able flavors   in   vegetables   and    certain    canned 
barrelled  or  dried  fish,  or  meats.     The  juices  of 
meats  and  bones  are  readily  extracted  in  its  pres- 
ence and  this  process  is  hastened  by  the  addition 
of  a  small  quantity  of  salt. 

50.  FLAVORS,    ETC.     Food    should    pos- 
sess  decided   flavors   without   being   too   highly 
seasoned.     It  should  be  served  hot  or  cold  as  in- 
tended.    Generally  we  like  our  tea,  coffee,  cook- 
ed vegetables,   and  meats  served  hot  while  we 
prefer  our  drinking  water,  butter,  salads,  fresh 
fruits,    such   garden   truck   as   lettuce,   radishes, 
and  onions  and  many  of  our  desserts  cold.     Many 
components  of  a  meal  that  are  luke  warm  instead 

.  of  decidedly  hot  or  cold  are  most  unappetizing. 

51.  The   heat    of  cooking    seems    to    create 


36        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

new  flavors  in  food  and  to  change  the  odor,  taste 
and  digestibility  of  nearly  all  articles  of  food. 
It  swells  and  bursts  the  starch  cells  in  flour,  rice, 
and  potatoes.  It  hardens  the  albumen  of  eggs, 
fish  and  meats,  and  softens  the  fibrous  substances 
in  tough  meats,  vegetables  and  fruits.  It  devel- 
ops new  flavors  in  tea,  coffee,  roast  meats,  vege- 
tables, crusts  of  bread,  baked  beans,  etc. 

52.  Air  (or  the  oxygen  which  it  contains) 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  development  of 
certain  flavors.     Steak  broiled  in  the  open  air, 
bread  toasted  in  the  same  manner  and  roasted 
ears  of  corn  possess  certain  flavors  that  cannot 
be  attained  in  any  other  way. 

It  is  also  noticeable  that  articles  of  food, 
cooked  in  a  closed  oven,  possess  certain  flavors 
that  are  lost  if  the  cooking  is  done  in  the  open 
air  on  the  top  of  the  range. 

53.  Baked  Apples  have  a  particularly  fine 
flavor,  largely  due  to  transformation  of  starch 
into  sugar,  and  to  the  carmelization  of  the  sugar 
used  in  baking. 

It  is  generally  held  that  certain  vegetables, 
such  as  turnips  and  cabbage,  should  be  well  ven- 
tilated while  boiling,  in  order  that  the  obnoxious 
sulfurous  and  other  gases  may  escape  from  the 


ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES.  37 

food,  and  that,  if  this  is  not  done,  the  vegetables 
will  possess  an  inferior  flavor,  become  discolored, 
and  contain  certain  elements  that  are  believed 
to  be  injurious.  Nevertheless,  we  have  been 
able  to  boil  cabbage  and  turnips  perfectly  and 
retain  the  fresh  color  and  elegant  flavor  by  sub- 
merging them  in  boiling  water  for  a  half  hour 
or  so,  according  to  the  size.  In  this  way,  obnox- 
ious fumes  do  not  escape,  but  such  sulfur  as  is 
extracted  from  the  vegetables  remains  in  the 
water. 

54.  WATER  is  a  necessity  in  certain  forms 
of    cooking.     For    example,    beans    and    pease 
have  to  absorb  a  great  deal  of  water  to  replace 
that  lost  in  the  process  of  ripening,  before  they 
can  be  made  into  palatable  food.     The  same  may 
be  said  of  desiccated  (dried)  fruits. 

55.  Soft  Water  is  used  to  advantage  in  soft- 
ening the   texture   of  meats,   in   extracting  the 
juices  from  bones  and  meat  in  the  preparation  of 
beef  stock,  and  oils  from  tea  or  coffee.     Dried 
beans  and  pease  should  be  boiled  in  soft  water,  if 
practicable,  as  the  lime  in  hard  water  hardens 
the  albumen  present,  and  retards  softening  of  the 
vegetables. 


38         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

56.  Hard  Water,   or  water   containing  salt, 
should  be  used  in  boiling  fresh  pease  and  beans, 
in  order  to  preserve  them  whole  and  retain  their 
juices  and  flavors. 

57.  In  the  preparation  of  beverages,  fresh 
water  should  be  used.     It  is  the  air  and  mineral 
and    vegetable    matters  contained    therein  that 
render  it  palatable.     In  the  process  of  boiling, 
the  air  escapes  with  the  steam,  and  the  mineral 
matters  are  precipitated  to  a  considerable  extent. 
Especially  in  making  tea  and  coffee,  care  should 
be  exercised  to  see  that  the  taste  is  not  ruined  by 
continuing  the  boiling  after  the  boiling  point  is 
reached. 

58.  Should  it  be  suspected  that  water  con- 
tains disease  germs,  it  should  be  boiled  15  to  20 
minutes  before  using,  and  if  it  can  then  be  aerated 
the  taste  will  be  greatly  improved. 

59.  Water  is  said  to  be  scalding  hot  at  a 
temperature  of  about   160  degrees  Fahr.     This 
temperature  is  sufficient  to  burn  the  skin,  burst 
open  starch  cells  found  in  potatoes,  rice,  flour, 
etc.,  or  to  kill  the  yeast  germ. 

60.  Water  is  said  to  simmer  when  the  bub- 
bles burst  beneath  the  surface  or  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  185  degrees  Fahr. 


ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES.  39 

61.  It  boils  when  the  bubbles  burst  at  the 
surface.     When  this  point  is  reached,  the  heat 
applied  to  the  water  escapes  with  the  steam,  and 
no  amount  of  fire  will  raise  the  temperature  of 
fresh  water  in  an  open  vessel  above  212  degrees 
Fahr.,  or  salt  water  above  224  degrees  Fahr. 

62.  It  is  a  well  established  fact  that  water 
boils  at  lower  temperatures  in  the  higher  altitudes 
on  account   of  the   diminished  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere;    and    consequently    it    will    take    a 
longer  time  for  food  to  cook,  for,  the  water  hold- 
ing less  heat,  the  vegetables  will  be  subjected  to  a 
lower  temperature.     The  boiling  point  of  fresh 
water,  which  is  212  degrees  Fahr.,  at  the  sea  level 
decreases   1   degree  Fahr.,  for  each  600  feet  of 
altitude. 

It  is  frequently  reported  that  beans  cannot  be 
cooked  thoroughly  in  high  altitudes.  In  our 
experience,  however,  we  have  found  no  difficulty 
'in  cooking  them  in  various  camps  at  altitudes  of 
over  8,000  feet.  If  only  alkali  water  is  available 
however,  much  difficulty  is  experienced,  but  this 
disappears  if  a  pinch  of  soda  is  added  to  the 
water. 

63.  The    boiling    point    of    water    may    be 
.raised,  by  the  addition  of  salt  or  sugar,  or  any- 


40         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

thing  that  increases  its  density,  or  by  pressure  as 
when  boiling  in  a  closed  vessel.  These  facts  are 
taken  into  consideration  in  steam  cooking,  in 
double  boilers,  in  boiling  meats,  and  in  general 
cooking  in  the  higher  altitudes. 

64.  DEEP  LARD.     The  superiority  of ' '  deep 
lard"   in  cooking  lies  in  the  fact  that  lard  or 
drippings  can  be  heated  to  such  an  extremely 
high   temperature   that   certain   articles   can   be 
thoroughly  cooked  without  giving  time  for  the 
grease  used  in  frying  to  soak  into  them.     Grease 
itself  boils  at  about  565  degrees  to  600  degrees 
Fahr.,  but  these  temperatures  are  too  high  for 
cooking ;  the  exterior  of  the  food  would  be  burned 
before  it  could  be  cooked  through. 

65.  The   grease   begins    to    smoke   between 
385  degrees  Fahr.,  and  450  degrees  Fahr.,  and 
this  is  the  best  temperature  for  using  it.     The 
great  difficulty  is   that   so  much  food  may  be 
introduced  at  one  time  as  to  cool  the  fat  and 
allow  it  to  soak  into  the  food  before  it  is  thor- 
oughly cooked.     If  this  fact  is  borne  in  mind 
almost  anything  that  can  be  fried  at  all  can  be 
fried  in  "deep  lard."     Meat  balls,  potato  balls 
and  croquettes  are  rolled  in  egg  and  cracker  or, 
bread  crumbs  before  frying ;    the  egg  coagulates, 


ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES.  41 

and  the  crumbs  which  are  held  in  place  by  it 
form  a  brown  crust  surrounding  the  ball  and  the 
grease  is  prevented  from  penetrating  further. 

Corn  fritters  contain  a  great  many  eggs  and 
a  nice  crust  is  quickly  formed  preventing  the  pene- 
tration of  the  grease. 

66.  It  is  noticed  that  as  soon  as  the  articles 
mentioned  have  been  dropped  into  the    grease 
which  is  far  below  its  boiling  point,  a  violent 
ebullition  is  observed.     This  is  due  to  the  escape 
of  steam  formed  by  contact  of  the  moisture  of 
the  article  introduced,  with  the  hot  grease.     All 
articles  fried  in  "deep  lard"  should  have  as  dry 
a  surface  as  possible.      If  food  with  a  damp  sur- 
face is  introduced,  grease  is  apt  to  be  thrown  out 
upon  the  range,  take  fire  and  cause  trouble. 

67.  Oysters  should  always  be  fried  in  deep 
grease,  also  doughnuts  and  all  kinds  of   fritters 
Saratoga  chips  and  French  fried  potatoes.     Sau- 
sages and  hamburg  steaks  may  be  fried  in  this 
manner,  though  it  requires  care  to  keep  them 
from  going  to  pieces.     Beef  steaks  and  liver  may 
be  fried  to  perfection  in  deep  grease,  but  this  is 
not  recommended  in  company  kitchens  as  inex- 
perienced men  often  drop  too  many  steaks  into 
the  grease  at  a  time.     If  the  frying  in  deep  lard 


42         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

is  properly  done,  there  will  be  much  less  grease 
used  than  when  it  is  done  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner. Fish  fries  very  nicely  in  deep  lard,  but 
there  is  the  objection  that  the  lard  cannot  be  used 
again  except  for  frying  fish;  (unless  the  fish  be 
quite  dry,  and  free  from  oil  and  slime,)  and  if 
fish  is  not  on  the  bill  of  fare  often,  one  would 
not  care  to  keep  a  pot  of  lard  for  this  purpose 
only. 

68.  The  flavor    of    articles    cooked    in    this 
manner  is  determined  largely  by  the  character  of 
the  oil,  fat,  drippings,  etc.,  that  have  been  used. 
It  is  probable  that  anything  cooked  in  olive  oil 
would  have  a  taste  superior  to  that  cooked  in 
other  oils  and  fats.     If  the  fat  consists  entirely  of 
beef  suet,  or  suet  and  mutton  fat,  there  would  be 
a  more  or  less  tallowy  taste  left  in  the  mouth — 
depending  upon  how  much  of  the  fat  the  food 
had  been  allowed  to  absorb.     Generally  speak- 
ing the  flavor  will  improve  with  the  proportion 
of  hog  fat  used  and  if  possible  an  attempt  should 
be  made  to  have  from  a  third  to  a  half  of  it  present. 

69.  FRYING   IN   SHALLOW   LARD    (or 
SAUTEING)   is   considered  the  worst  form  of 


ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES.  43 

cooking,  though  it  will  do  well  enough  in  camp 
and  when  the  digestion  does  not  demand  special 
attention.  Almost  anything  that  can  be  fried  at 
all  can  be  fried  in  deep  lard  with  less  disagreeable 
smoke  and  a  great  saving  of  lard.  Too  often 
in  frying  in  shallow  lard,  much  fat  is  allowed 
to  soak  into  the  food,  a  part  of  which  is  fried 
until  hard,  crisp,  and  indigestible.  The  same 
food  properly  cooked  in  "deep  lard"  would  have 
a  thin  crust  throughout. 

70.  SEASONING.  Cooks  must  not  be  sat- 
isfied with  learning  the  proper  proportions  of 
ingredients,  and  think  that  the  work  is  done  when 
the  cooking  begins.  Food  must  be  properly  pre- 
pared, delicately  seasoned  and  served  hot  or  cold  as 
desired.  Luke  warm,  ill  seasoned  food  is  un- 
palatable, and  if  served  in  a  slovenly  manner 
is  most  unappetizing.  Any  amount  of  season- 
ing at  the  table  cannot  make  up  for  poor  seas- 
oning in  cooking — the  same  flavors  cannot  be 
obtained.  It  is  the  Cook  who  not  only  gets  the 
proper  proportions  in  cooking,  but,  who  ako 
delicately  seasons  his  food  and  serves  it  in  an 
appetizing  manner  that  should  be  styled  a  chef. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  GARRISON  RATION. 

71.  GENERAL  REMARKS.  A  proper 
handling  of  the  garrison  ration  requires  an  in- 
timate knowledge  of  its  composition,  for  the 
reason  that,  although  it  has  now  been  placed  on 
a  strictly  cash  basis,  its  value  is  based  upon  the 
quantities  of  various  articles  formerly  issued, 
and  such  quantities  were  determined  by  the  neces- 
sity of  providing  a  well-balanced  diet.  (See 
Par.  21.)  In  passing  from  an  issue  to  a  cash 
basis,  the  actual  value  of  the  garrison  ration  has 
been  increased  from  one-half  to  one  and  one- 
half  cents,  on  account  of  allowing  credit  for  a 
greater  proportion  of  bacon  and  jam  (relatively 
expensive  articles)  than  were  generally  drawn. 

In  providing  for  our  messes,  we  should  keep 
in  mind  the  amounts  of  the  various  components 
of  the  Garrison  Ration  and  in  general  purchase 
about  the  amounts  of  meat,  vegetables,  coffee, 
etc.,  that  were  formerly  issued;  and  unless  some 
44 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  45 

such  system  is  followed,  it  is  feared  that  the  new 
mess  officer  will  meet  with  financial  surprises 
when  settling  his  bills  at  the  end  of  the  month. 


COMPONENTS  OF  THE  RATION  SEPA- 
RATELY CONSIDERED. 

72.  MEAT.     The  cash  credit  derived  from 
the  meat  component,  if  properly  handled,  is  suf- 
ficient to  provide  meat  in  some  form  for  each 
meal,  and  still  make  a  saving  of  about  ten  per 
cent.     While  there  is  no  doubt  that  we  generally 
consume  too  much  meat  in  Army  messes,  it  is 
still  considered  the  basis  for  each  meal,  and  if  it 
cannot  be  provided  in  some  form,  other  articles 
rich  in  muscle  building  material  and  fat  should 
take  its  place.     Beans  flavored  with  bacon  and 
enriched  with  its  fat,  macaroni  and  cheese,  and 
fish  chowder  are  good  substitutes  to  keep  down 
the  expenditure  of  the  meat  component.     (See 
Par.  35.) 

73.  In  garrison,  such  variety  of  meats  can 
be  supplied  from  the  cash  credit  derived  from 
the  meat  component  as  to  render  it  unnecessary, 
to  serve  meat  in  exactly  the  same  form  more 


46         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

than  once  a  week,  and  few  oftener  than  once  in 
two  weeks.  (See  article  for  Bills  of  Fare  in  Mess 
Sergeant's  Handbook.)  Such  meats  as  beef 
hearts,  liver,  sausage,  pork,  fish,  etc.,  procured 
on  the  market,  or  prepared  in  the  kitchen,  are 
frequently  as  cheap,  or  cheaper  than  beef,  con- 
sidering that  bone  appears  in  small  quantity,  or 
not  at  all,  and  with  care  in  their  selection  and 
preparation,  they  will  lend  almost  an  endless 
variety  in  rounding  out  the  bill  of  fare.  The  fol- 
lowing is  an  example  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
meat  component  may  be  handled.  Note  how  the 
cost  of  the  cheaper  and  more  expensive  meats 
are  balanced,  so  as  to  provide  a  desired  variety, 
and  still  not  exceed  the  cash  credit  derived  from 
this  component. 

Example:  Assume  an  organization  of  100 
men;  Commissary  price  of  beef,  7.22  cents,  bacon 
19  cents,  and  prevailing  prices  of  the  substitutes 
purchased  as  noted  below : 

700  rations  of  beef,  875  Ibs.,  at  7.22c  per  Ib $  63.17 

300  rations  of  bacon,  225  Ibs.,  at  19c  per  Ib 42.75 

S 105. 93 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  47 

SUBSTITUTES  FOR   BEEF   PURCHASED. 

(See  Par.  16,  Mess  Sergeant's  Handbook.) 

per.  Ib. 

1.  Beef  Hearts (Dinner)   40  Ibs.  at     6c  $      2.40 

2.  Spare  Ribs (Dinner)   56  Ibs.  at  lOc  5.60 

3.  Headless  Picker  el  (Breakfast)  30  Ibs.  at    9c  2.70 

4.  Bacon  &(See  Par.  35)  (Dinner)     6  Ibs.  at  19c  )  2.70 

Beans 25  Ibs.  at     6c  i  2.64 

5.  Frankfurters :.... (Dinner)  40  Ibs.  at    8c  3.20 

6.  Ham  Butts (Dinner)  45  Ibs.  at  12c  5.40 

7.  Brains (Supper)   45  Ibs.  at     6.5c  2.93 

8.  Bacon  and  Beacs (Dinner)   Same  as  No.  4 2.64 

9.  Bacon (Breakfast)   20  Ibs.  at  19c  3.80 

10.     Beef  Liver  and       (Breakfast)  22  Ibs.  at    5.5c  1.21 

Bacon ....10  Ibs.  at  19c  1.90 


Total  cost  of  substitutes  for  beef $    34.42 

Balance  of  cash  credit  on  beef....  71.51 


$  105.93 

The  balance  of  the  cash  credit  ($71.51)  is 
sufficient  to  purchase  990  pounds  cf  beef  at  7.22 
cents  per  pound.  While  providing  meat  for  one- 
third  of  the  meals  in  the  ten  day  period,  even 
when  most  of  the  meals  were  the  heaviest  of  the 
day  (dinner)  we  have  expended  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  cash  credit  derived  from  the  meat 
component.  It  would  seem  that  considerably 
less  than  two-thirds  of  1,000  rations  of  beef, 
i.  e..,  2-3  x  1,250  or  833  pounds  should  still  be  con- 
sumed in  the  ten  day  period,  and  therefore  that 
even  a  greater  saving  than  990:833,  or  157 
pounds  of  beef,  at  7.22,  or  $11.34,  should  be 
saved  on  this  component  for  general  purchases. 


48         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

This  result  corresponds  very  closely  with  our 
School  records,  which  show  that  we  actually  do 
save  more  than  10  per  cent,  on  our  meat  com- 
ponent. In  any  case,  a  judicious  substitution  of 
the  cheaper  meats,  bacon  and  beans,  macaroni 
and  cheese,  fish  chowder  with  a  well  seasoned 
sage  dressing,  etc.,  will  provide  for  the  purchase 
of  chicken,  pork  or  high  grade  fish  for  Sunday 
dinners,  and  at  other  times. 

74.  Much  study  must  be  given  to  the  cut- 
ting up  of  meat  so  as  to  use  it  to  the  best  advan- 
tage in  the  kitchen.     Being  supplied  in  bulk,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  Cooks  to  have  some  knowledge 
of  the  proper  method  of  cutting'  it  up  for  kitchen 
use  and  they  should  know  for  what  purpose  each 
cut  is  best  adapted.     All  parts  of  the  meat,  as 
delivered,  can  be  put  to  some  use.     Parts  espe- 
cially good  as  roasts,  if  in  sufficient  quantities, 
should  not  be  consumed  in  stews  or  pot-pies,  nor 
should  steaks  be  used  for  soup  stock,  but  each 
part  should  be  worked  in  to  the  best  possible  ad- 
vantage.    The  new  Manual  for  Army  Cooks  gives 
instructions  for  handling  meat  that   should  be 
closely  followed  by  the  Cooks. 

75.  Special  Uses.     The  tougher  parts  of  fresh 
meats,     not    otherwise    consumed,     should    be 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  49 

put  through  the  grinder  and  used  up  in  Hamburg 
steaks.  '  Except  in  hot  weather,  corned  beef 
should  be  regularly  prepared  by  the  Cooks  and 
in  sufficient  quantity  for  use  with,  or  without 
cabbage,  about  once  in  ten  days.  Beef  cheese 
should  be  prepared  and  consumed  about  as  often. 
Sausage  may  be  prepared  to  advantage  in  the 
kitchen  whenever  pork  is  available,  and  frequently 
at  less  than  market  price.  All  left-over  meats 
should  be  used  up  in  meat  balls,  croquettes,  hash, 
etc.,  and  no  cooked  meats  should  be  thrown 
away,  except  that  which  has  been  taken  on  the 
plate  and  has  not  been  consumed. 

76.  Preservation    of    Meats.     Meats    should 
not  be  allowed  to  spoil  in  the  hands  of  the  cook. 
Lacking  facilities  for  its  preservation  while  fresh, 
it.should  be  roasted  dry,  boiled,  corned,  or  worked 
up  into  cheese  for  future  use. 

77.  Lean  Meat.     Lean  meat  contains  a  very 
high   percentage   of   water — about   half — and   if 
fat  is  present,  the  water  is  proportionately  less. 
Therefore,  in  roasting  lean  meat,  suet  should  be 
added.     Remember    that    meat    is    best    when 
medium  well  done. 


50         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

78.  Bacon.     The  best  use  for  bacon  in  gar- 
rison is  to  give  flavor  to  other  articles  and  to  en- 
rich them  with  its  fat.     In  the  ten  day  period 
from  one  to  three  messes  of  beans  may  be  served. 
For  use  with  them,  in  soups,  and  as  seasonings, 
and  for  one  meal   during  the  ten   day  period, 
from  40  to  50  pounds  would  be  required  for  100 
men.    ' 

79.  Tough    Steaks,    Etc.     Observe    carefully 
the  principles  of  cooking,  as  laid  down  in  Chapter 
III.     If  old  or  tough  meats  have  to  he  used, 
remember  that  a  long  period  of  slow  cooking  is 
best.     For  example,  prepare  the  steaks,  medium 
well  done,  from  one  to  two  hours  before  the  time 
for  serving  and  let  them  stand  in  a  heated  earthen 
jar  (or  other  receptacle),  either  on  the  shelf  of 
the  range,  or  in  a  pan  of  boiling  hot  water,  until 
meal  time.     All  solid  meats,  roasted  or  boiled, 
might  well  be  treated  in  the  same  manner,  slicing 
them  immediately  before  serving  in  order  to  re- 
tain the  juices.     So  long  as  a  temperature  above 
130  degrees  Fahr.,  is  maintained,  changes  go  on 
within  the  fibrous  tissue  and  render  it  tender. 

All  meats  should  be  sliced  in  the  kitchen  be- 
fore serving  in  order  that  fats,  gristle,  and  other 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  51 

portions  that  will  not  be  eaten  if  taken  on  the 
mens'  plates,  may  be  saved  and  either  rendered 
out,  or  served  in  some  other  form.  Serve  all 
sliced  meats  on  platters  so  that  the  men  may  help 
themselves.  For  the  same  reason,  stews,  and  pot- 
pies,  should  be  served  in  suitable  eathernware 
dishes.  There  is  sufficient  in  the  ration  to  give 
the  men  plenty,  and  any  tendency  to  take  more 
on  their  plates  than  can  be  eaten  will  disappear 
under  proper  supervision  of  the  Mess  Sergeant. 

80.  Soup  Stock.  Soup  stock  should  be 
made  fresh  every  day  or  two.  Cut  the  fresh 
meat  into  small  chunks,  break  or  saw  the  bones 
and  place  them  together  in  cold  water  for  several 
hours,  if  practicable,  and  then  set  on  the  range 
and  allow  to  simmer  for  eight  or  nine  hours.  The 
juices  of  the  meat  will  be  extracted  in  about  two 
hours  of  simmering,  and  it  should  be  removed 
from  the  boiler  at  the  end  of  that  time,  in  order 
that  the  fibers  will  not  become  hardened  and  in- 
digestible. (See  Par.  81.)  Cooked  meat,  if 
used,  should  be  added  after  the  boiler  is  placed  on 
the  range.  When  prepared,  strain  the  stock  into 
earthen  jars  and  set  in  a  cool  place.  The  grease 
will  rise  to  the  top  and  harden,  and  can  then  be 
easily  removed.  Clean  out  the  stock  boiler  and 


52        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

start  over  next  time  with  an  entirely  new  lot  of 
bones  and  meat.  The  stock  is  used,  not  only  in 
making  soups,  but  also  in  hash,  meat  balls,  pot- 
pies,  gravies,  sauces,  etc.,  and  sometimes  in  mashed 
potatoes. 

81.  Prevent  Waste.     No  portion  of  the  meal 
or  bones  should  be  thrown  away  so  long  as  any 
nutriment  remains  in  them.     Remember  that  in 
boiling  beef,  only  the  juices  are  extracted,  and  that 
most  of  the  nourishment  remains  in  the  meat, 
though  by  continued  boiling,  the  fibers  are  hard- 
ened and  rendered  less  digestible.     If  run  through 
the  hash  machine,  the  meat  from  the  stock  boiler 
can  be  used  to  advantage  in  hash,  meat  balls, 
croquettes,  etc.,  though  if  used  alone,  it  -will  be 
dry  and  tasteless,  on  account  of  the  absence1  of 
the  extractives. 

82.  Soup.     A  rich,  well-seasoned,  stock  soup 
should,  as  a  rule,  form  a  part  of  the  dinner  each 
day.     It  should  be  served  in  a  course  by  itself, 
and  before  the  more  substantial  part  of  the  dinner 
is  brought  on.     The  soup  should  be  set  out  in 
covered  tureens  each  of  which  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  deep  ladle,  so  that  the  men  may  help 
themselves.     Serve  plenty  of  croutons,  or  crackers 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  53 

with  it,  and  see  that  it  is  hot  when  served,  and 
that  the  grease  is  skimmed  off.  In  our  experi- 
ence, 10  to  12  gallons  is  disposed  of  regularly 
by  a  company  of  100  men.  If  the  soup  is  served 
with  the  more  substantial  part  of  the  meal,  you 
should  very  properly  expect  the  men  to  pass  it 
by  in  order  to  get  their  share  of  the  pot-pie,  etc., 
and  to  get  it  while  it  is  hot.  If  it  is  served  in  the 
manner  indicated,  there  will  be  small  loss.  All 
that  is  left  in  the  tureens  may  be  saved  and  used 
up  in  some  other  form  for  supper,  or  other  subse- 
quent meal. 

Strain  the  soup  and  save  the  vegetables  and 
meat  for  hash,  meat  balls,  etc.  The  stock  may  be 
used  again  in  soup  on  the  following  day,  or  added 
to  hash,  gravies,  etc.  Especially  in  warm  weather 
stock  in  which  vegetables  have  been  cooked,  will 
sour  in  a  short  time  and  hence  it  must  be  used 
up  at  once. 

83.  BREAD  AND  FLOUR.  In  the  Train- 
ing School  kitchens  about  10  per  cent,  is  saved 
from  the  cash  credit  derived  from  this  component, 
i.  e.,  after  purchasing  the  bread  consumed  in  the 
mess  and  sufficient  flour  for  all  other  purposes, 
about  10  per  cent,  is  left  to  apply,  for  example, 


54         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

on  breakfast  foods,  which  are  consumed  almost 
daily,  but  for  which  no  cash  credit  is  allowed. 
It  is  considered  that  not  more  than  two-thirds 
of  the  credit  on  this  component  should  be  ex- 
pended for  bread,  and  that  if  more  bread  is 
purchased,  it  must  form  so  great  a  part  of  the 
diet  that  probably  it  is  the  best  time  on  the  bill 
of  fare,  and  the  mess  is  a  poor  one.  If  the  meat 
and  vegetables  are  well  prepared,  the  organiza- 
tion will  not  begin  to  spend  its  credit  from  this 
component  for  bread,  and  if  hot  rolls,  buns,  bis- 
cuits, etc.,  are  frequently  made,  the  purchase  of 
bread  should  decrease  in  proportion,  as  we  are 
but  adding  variety  by  giving  the  flour  to  the  men 
in  a  slightly  different  form. 

84.  Flour  is  the  cheapest  food  that  can  be 
constantly  used  in  the  kitchen,  nutritive  value 
and  general  usefulness  considered.     It  is  rich  in 
muscle  building  material  and  in  starch,  which  is 
converted  into  sugar  and  fat,  and  a  study  of  the 
various  methods  of  handling  it  will  more  than  pay 
for  the  trouble. 

85.  Bread    should    be    purchased    in    small 
quantities  as  required,  from  day  to  day,  especi- 
ally if  rats  and  mice  are  numerous,  and  a  good 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  55 

bread  box  has  not  yet  been  provided.  Just, be- 
fore mess  call,  .it  should  be  cut  into  thin. slices 
and  piled  closely  on  the  plates.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  meal,  only  small  quantities  should  be  cut, 
in  order  to  have  but  few  unused  slices  remaining. 
Unused  slices  should  -not  be  thrown  away,  but 
•should  be  piled  closely  on  the  plate,  in  the  form 
of  the  loaf  as  cut,  and  covered  with  a  slightly 
dampened  cloth,  and  put  away  to  be  served  first 
at  the  next  meal. 

86.  Crumbs.  Crumbs  and  dried  pieces  of 
bread,  and  bread  that  is  slightly  heavy'  and  not 
desirable  for  the  table,  should  be  saved'  and 
placed  in  a  flour  sack,  suspended  in  a  dry  place 
in  the  store  room  or  elsewhere.  From'  time  to 
time,  they  should  be  toasted  and  ground  'into 
powder  or  fine  crumbs,  for  use  in  the  place  of 
cracker  dust,  in  the  preparation  of  meat  balls, 
potato  balls,  croquettes,  etc.  The  crumbs'  of 
bread,  or  good  slices,  may  be  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  bread  pudding,  in  stufning,  etc.,  or  put  into 
cubes,  toasted  and  served  as  croutons  with  sourj. 

•  87.  Milk  Toast.  This  is  a  dish  that  is  seldom 
made,  but  cheap  and  greatly  appreciated.  In  its 
preparation,  much  bread  that  might  otherwise 


56         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

become  dry  or  moldy  is  prepared  in  a  palatable 
form. 

88.  Bread  and  Rolls  that  have  been  dried 
out  to  some  extent  may  be  greatly  freshened  by 
moistening  slightly  and  placing  in  a  slow  oven  for 
half  an  hour.  The  moisture  within  the  loaf  or 
roll  that  has  disappeared  by  combining  with  the 
crumb,  will  be  reconverted  into  steam  and  per- 
meate the  whole,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  fresh 
bread. 

Observe  the  following  methods:  Place  a 
moistened  dish  towel  in  the  bottom  of  a  bake  pan 
and  then  place  the  rolls  upon  it,  folding  the  ends 
of  the  towel  over  the  tops  of  the  rolls  and  sprink- 
ling lightly  those  exposed.  Place  in  a  slow 
oven  (say  25  counts)  for  about  half  an  hour,  and 
the  rolls  will  be  ready  to  serve.  Or,  place  a  pan 
of  steaming  hot  water  on  the  bottom  shelf  of  the 
oven,  and  a  pan  of  rolls  on  the  top  shelf,  leaving 
the  door  on  the  second  notch,  to  give  circulation 
of  steam,  and  re-heat  as  before.  Or,  place  a  pan 
of  rolls  in  a  larger  pan  of  hot  water,  and  cover 
the  whole  with  another  pan  for  about  20  minutes. 
See  that  the  surface  of  the  rolls  is  dry  before 
serving. 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  57 

To  further  use  accumulated  bread  crumbs, 
or  to  cheapen  the  cost  of  running  the  mess,  a 
goodly  proportion  may  be  mixed  in  with  the  hash 
and  all  similar  preparations,  in  Hamburg  steaks, 
in  pan  cakes,  and  in  fruit  pudding.  Flour  may 
even  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  starch  in  sweet 
sauces,  with  but  little  detriment  and  little  chance 
of  detection. 

Soups  and  stews  will  be  greatly  improved 
by  dropping  small  pieces  of  dough  into  them 
while  boiling  hot,  about  10  minutes  before  serv- 
ing. 

89.  Pan  Cakes.  In  many  organizations  any 
attempt  to  serve  pan  cakes  has  been  given  up- 
on account  of  the  apparent  necessity  of  serving 
them  cold.  To  obviate  this,  place  a  hot  bake  pan 
on  the  shelf  of  the  range  and  as  fast  as  the  cakes 
are  fried  pile  them  carefully  in  tiers  of  about  one 
dozen  each  and  they  will  keep  hot  for  a  long 
time.  Cover  with  a  clean  dish  towel,  also  using 
one  beneath  the  pile  of  cakes. 

Frequently  the  pan  cakes  that  are  fried  first 
are  tough  and  soggy,  for  the  reason  that  griddle 
is  not  hot  enough  and  as  a  result  the  batter  is 
heated  gradually  and  the  gas  escapes,  thus  render- 


58        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

ing  a  cellular  structure  impossible.  Again,  the 
last  cakes  fried  are  apt  to  be  heavy,  for  the  reason 
that  the  batter  has  been  standing  in  a  warm  room 
for  some  time,  allowing. the  gas  to  expand  and 
escape  from  the  batter  before  it  is  placed  on  the 
griddle. 

The  right  way  is  to  get  the  griddle  hot,  then 
add  baking  powder  to  a  portion  of  the  batter  only 
—say  one-fourth — preparing  the  remainder  in 
similar  quantities  just  before  you  are  ready  to 
fry  it  into  cakes.  The  griddle  should  be  smoking 
hot,  and  the  batter  just  thin  enough  to  spread 
readily  to  the  desired  thickness  on  the  griddle. 
As  soon  as  the  bubbles  begin  to  appear,  and  be- 
fore they  have  broken  at  the  surface,  the  cakes 
should  be  turned  back  again  to  finish  frying 
on  the  side  first  coming  in  contact  with  the  grid- 
dle. 

Batter  cakes  can  just  as  well  be  made  by 
setting  a  sponge  (that  is  by  using  yeast),  thus 
making  a  small  saving  in  money  and  incidentally 
avoiding  any  difficulties  met  in  handling  baking 
powder.  In  addition,  a  small  amount  of  baking 
powder  can  be  added  to  advantage  in  the  manner 
above  indicated. 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  59 

90.  Hard  Bread  is  occasionally  ordered  sold, 
by  the  Commissary,  in  order  that  a  fresh  supply 
may  be  kept  in  store.     The  small  quantity  pur- 
chased  may   easily   be   disposed   of   as   follows: 
Toast  into  a  quick  oven  and  break  into  soup  im- 
mediately   before    serving.     Use    it    in    making 
chowder.     Prepare  a  bread  and  apple  pudding. 
Use  in  making  pan  cakes,  or  any  of  the  ways  in- 
dicated for  crumbs  and  dried  bread. 

91.  Corn  Meal.     Corn  meal  should  be  used 
occasionally  to  break  the  monotony  of  oatmeal 
as  a  breakfast  food.     It  may  also  be  served  for 
breakfast  or  supper  in  the  form  of  mush,  or  corn 
bread  and  sirup,  or  made  into    a    genuine    hoe 
cake.     Left-over  mush  of  any  kind  may  be  sliced 
when  cold,  fried  and  served  hot  with  or  without 
sirup. 

92.  There  will  be  an  additional  fund  accru- 
ing from  this  component,  by  way  of  a  bakery 
dividend  at  the  end  of  each  quarter.     This  divi- 
dend will  be  small — possibly  $.003  or  $.004  per 
pound  of  bread  purchased  by  the  organization,  de- 
pending upon  the  extra  duty  paid  the  bakers,  the 
price  of  flour,  yeast,  etc.,  used  in  the  bakery. 

93.  Baking  Powder.     The  allowance  of  bak- 


60        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

ing  powder  is  generally  sufficient,  but  the  amount 
to  be  purchased  depends  largely  upon  the  amount 
of  yeast  used  in  the  kitchen.  The  allowance  will 
permit  of  making  one  component  of  one  meal 
every  day,  say  batter  cakes,  biscuits,  etc.  Roughly 
speaking,  an  estimate,  of  baking  powder  to  be  used 
will  be  about  three-fourths  ounce  per  pound  of 
flour  required  for  the  batter  cakes,  biscuits,  etc., 
or  possibly  notetnore  than  one-half  of  an  ounce,  if 
a  good  baking  powder,  such  as  Royal,  or  Price's, 
is  used. 

94.  In  using  baking  powder,  remember  that 
it  is  a  mixture  of  an  acid  and  an  alkali,  which  re- 
main inert  so  long  as  they  are  kept  perfectly  dry, 
but  quickly  unite  in  the  presence  of  water,  liberat- 
ing the  carbonic  gas,  which  gives  to  the  dough 
the  porous  structure.  (See  definitions.)  The 
quantity  of  gas  liberated  by  a  given  amount 
of  any  particular  powder  is  definite,  and  fixed  in 
quantity,  and  its  premature  escape  will  ruin  the 
food  that  is  being  prepared,  making  it  heavy  and 
s°ggy-  Heat  hastens  the  formation  and  escape 
of  the  gases,  therefore  use  cold  water  in  the  mixtures 
containing  baking  powder,  and  bake  at  once;  or, 
until  the  dough  prepared  can  be  baked,  it  should 
be  kept  in  a  cool  place.  Note  that  the  method  of 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  61 

handling  baking  powder  mixtures  is  exactly  op- 
posite to  that  followed  when  handling  yeast, 
where  warm  water  (of  80  to  90  degrees  Fahr.) 
should  be  used,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  fermenta- 
tion and  formation  of  gas,  and  for  the  same  reason 
an  even,  warm  temperature  is  required  while  the 
dough  is  rising. 

When  using  yeast,  there  is  a  continuous  forma- 
tion of  gas  which  is  stopped  only  by  killing  the 
yeast  germ  in  the  oven.  With  baking  powder, 
there  should  be  little  evidence  of  its  presence 
until  the  dough  has  been  placed  in  the  oven,  when 
the  heat  causes  its  rapid  expansion.  The  oven 
heat  forms  a  crust,  seals  the  pores,  and  fixes  the 
framework  before  the  gas  has  had  an  opportunity 
to  escape  and  allow  the  dough  to  drop  back  to 
its  former  condition.  It  is  just  at  this  critical 
stage  that  a  jarring  of  the  dough  may  rupture  the 
cells  that  have  formed  and  cause  the  cake  or  other 
preparation  to  fall. 

95.  A  fairly  good  baking  powder  can  be  made 
as  follows:  Take  16  ounces  of  cream  of  tartar,  8 
ounces  of  baking  soda  and  4  ounces  of  corn  starch, 
and  mix  thoroughly  by  putting  through  the  sieve 
at  lea.st  nine  times. 


62         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

96.  Yeast.     The  cook  who  is  familiar  with 
handling  yeast  in  the  kitchen  has  an  immense 
advantage  over  the  one  who  is  not,  and  he  can 
run  his  kitchen  at  a  relatively  lower  cost,  while 
setting  a  better  table  and  providing  a  greater 
variety  of  food  for  his  men. 

The  reason  is  this:  Flour  is  the  cheapest 
component  of  the  ration  that  can  be  used  in  quan- 
tity in  the  kitchen,  and  consequently  any  increase 
in  this  component  over  the  normal  amount  will 
lessen  the  general  expense  of  running  the  mess. 
Furthermore,  by  the  use  of  yeast,  we  can  supply 
every  day  a  different  variety  cf  hot  rolls  or  cold 
bread,  in  the  form  of  Parkerhouse  Rolls,  Tea  Buns, 
Cinnamon  Buns,  Coffee  Cakes,  Crullers,  Jenny 
Linds,  etc.  The  men  never  tire  of  these  articles, 
while  baking  powder  biscuits,  is  used  constantly, 
turn  against  the  stomachs  of  those  men  not  accus- 
tomed to  eating  them.  As  a  consequence  of 
eating  more  -than  a  normal  amount  of  the  cheaper 
component,  the  men  eat  far  less  of  the  more  ex- 
pensive articles. 

97.  THE  BEAN  COMPONENT.    The  cash 
credit    derived    from    tHs    component  is  more 
than   sufficient   to   cover   the    dried   vegetables 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  63 

that  can  generally  be  used  to  advantage  in  the 
kitchen  even  during  the  winter  and  early  spring, 
considering  that  the  beans  used  with  bacon  as 
substitute  for  beef  are  considered  as  bought 
from  the  meat  credit  allowance.  (See  Par.  35). 
The  variety  being  served  should  be  as  great  as 
possible,  and  not  consist  of  the  issue  beans  and 
rice  only. 

98.  Special  care  should  be  exercised  to  see 
that  beans  are  thoroughly  done  before  serving. 
They  should  be  whole  but  so  soft  as  to  be  easily 
mashed  in  the  fingers.  Remember  that  soft 
water  is  best,  and  if  the  water  is  very  hard,  one- 
half  to  one  teaspoonful  of  soda  per  gallon  of 
water  should  be  added.  We  do  not  endorse  the 
general  method  advocated  for  baking  beans, 
"Soak  all  day,  and  boil  all  night,"  but  in  order 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  tough,  detached  hulls, 
recommend  that  they  be  soaked  not  longer  than 
from  one  to  three  hours,  boiled  not. longer  than 
one  hour,  and  thereafter  allowed  to  simmer  (say 
at  180  degrees  Fahr.)  until  done.  In  this  way,  the 
hulls  disappear  entirely,  and  the  beans  remain 
whole,  giving  fine,  nutty  flavor. 

If  beans  are  well  cooked,  they  are  an  invalu- 
able food  for  the  soldier  while  doing  arduous 


64         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

service,  but  if  not  thoroughly  done,  they  are  irri- 
tating, indigestible,  and  productive  of  much  intes- 
tinal disorder.  If  the  beans  or  pease  are  ground, 
they  are  much  more  quickly  prepared  and  are 
more  readily  digested.  Bean  and  pea  meal  is 
strongly  recommended  for  soups  and  stews  in 
the  field.  (See  Par.  100-a.) 

99.  Beans,    while   an   excellent  food  for   the 
robust  and  healthy,   and  for  persons  leading  an 
active  life,  are  considered  unsuitable  for  persons 
of  sedentary  habits  and  for  the  invalid  and  con- 
valescent. 

Beans  and  pease  contain  much  muscle  build- 
ing material,  but  are  deficient  in  fat.  With  the 
designated  amount  of  fat  added,  they  approach 
the  food  value  of  fresh  beef,  though  they  are  not 
so  thoroughly  digested.  (See  Par.  35.) 

100.  For  an  organization  of  100  men,  the 
following  is  about  the  maximum  amount  of  dried 
vegetables  that  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  a  ten 
day  period,  even  during  that  portion  of  the  year 
when  fresh  vegetables  are  not  abundant. 

(a)  Issue  Beans,  75  pounds.  This  is  suffi- 
cient for  two  messes  of  baked  beans,  one  mess  of 
stewed  beans,  and  one  soup.  There  is  a  general 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  65 

idea  that  beans  cannot  be  baked  without  soaking, 
but  we  find  that  if  simply  placed  in  cold  water, 
brought  to  a  boiling  point,  and  left  at  a  simmering 
temperature  for  about  ten  hours,  equally  good  re- 
sults are  obtained.  In  cold  or  moderate  weather, 
the  beans  may  be  soaked  for  five  or  six  hours, 
though  we  cannot  see  that  any  great  benefit  re- 
sults from  so  doing,  and  in  hot  weather  they  are 
more  liable  to  sour. 

For  flavor  and  fat  (in  which  beans  are  de- 
ficient) about  15  or  20  per  cent,  of  sliced  or  diced 
bacon,  ham,  or  salt  pork,  should  be  added  before 
baking.  If  additional  bacon  is  served  with  the 
beans,  (an  unnecessary  extravagance)  it  should 
be  fried  or  boiled,  and  served  separately,  and  not 
cooked  with  them,  as  it  would  make  them  too 
greasy.  Beans  are  cooked  only  fairly  well  in 
the  type  of ' '  fireless  cooker ' '  now  provided.  They 
must,  however,  generally  be  boiled  for  at  least  an 
hour  before  being  placed  in  the  cooker,  and  be 
carefully  insulated,  and  even  then,  it  is  frequently 
necessary  to  re-heat  them  before  serving. 

(b)  Dried  Pease,  20  pounds.  This  is  suffi- 
cient for  one  mess  of  stewed  pease.  Add  five 
pounds  of  diced  bacon,  and  serve  as  a  vegetable. 


66         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Dried  green  pease  (whole)  are  handled  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  dried  beans,  except  that  very 
little  sugar  is  added.  They  may  be  baked  or. 
stewed. 

(c)  Lima  Beans,  20  pounds.     This  is  suffi- 
cient for  one  mess  of  stewed  beans.     Add  five 
pounds  of  diced  bacon  and  serve  as  a  vegetable. 
Lima  beans  break  up   very   easily  in   cooking; 
therefore,  as  soon  as  they  are  brought  to  a  boil, 
they  should  be  set  back  on  the  range,  or  in  a  pan 
of  boiling  water,  and  allowed  to  simmer  until 
well  done,  about  two  and  one-half  or  three  hours 
being  required. 

(d)  Kidney  Beans,  15  pounds.     This  is  suffi- 
cient for  one  mess  of  stewed  beans.     Add  five 
pounds  of  diced  bacon,  cook  over  night  in  an 
oven  and  serve  as  a  vegetable.     Handled  in  the 
same  manner  as  issue  beans,  except  for  season- 
ing. 

(e)  Chili  Beans,   25  pounds.     This  is  suffi- 
cient for  one  meal  of  Chili  con  Carne  and  one  mess 
of  stewed  beans.     To  serve  as  a  vegetable,  add 
five  pounds  of  diced  bacon  and  cook  for  three 
or  four  hours.     They  are  better,  however,  when 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  67 

baked  over  night.     Kidney  beans  and  issue  beans 
may  also  be  used  in  Chili  con  Carne. 

(f)  Rice.  Rice  is  very  easy  of  digestion,  and 
is  relished  by  the  soldier,  if  properly  cooked,  i.  e., 
so  that,  when  ready  to  serve,  the  grains  are  nicely 
separated  from  each  other  and  so  soft  as  to  easily 
mash  in  the  fingers.  Rice  is  rich  in  starch 
and  is  consequently  an  important  source  of 
energy,  rather  than  a  builder  of  flesh  and  muscle. 

For  one  hundred  men,  supply  about  25 
pounds  for  the  ten  day  period,  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  preparing  one  meal  of  curry  and  rice,  one 
pudding,  and  one  mess  of  boiled  rice,  in  addition 
to  using  it  in  soup. 

To  boil  rice,  place  in  plenty  of  water — say 
four  times  its  volume,  and  let  boil  until  the  rice 
can  be  almost  mashed  between  the  fingers,  but  is 
still  a  little  stiff,  say  for  twenty  minutes.  Set  a 
colander  on  the  drain  board  and  pour  the  whole 
contents  into  it.  There  will  be  sufficient  heat  re- 
maining to  finish  the  cooking,  so  that  the  grains 
may  be  mashed  in  the  fingers,  but  are  still  sepa- 
rate and  whole.'  Place  in  a  clean  receptacle  and 
set  in  a  warm  place  until  served. 


68         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

If  the  rice  has  been  boiled  too  long,  it  should 
be  chilled  at  once  by  placing  under  a  cold  water 
spigot,  or  by  immersion  in  a  vessel  of  cold  water, 
removing  at  once. 

(g)  Dried  Sweet  Corn,  15  pounds.  This  is 
sufficient  for  one  mess  of  stewed  corn  and  one  of 
soup.  It  takes  up  water  very  readily — about 
twice  its  weight — and  can  be  prepared  in  about 
three-fourths  of  an  hour.  If,  however,  the  corn 
has  been  cured  when  nearly  ripe  instead  of  when 
in  full  milk  it  may  be  necessary  to  soak  for  3  or 
4  hours  and  cook  for  the  same  period. 

(h)  Hominy,  10  pounds.  It  may  be  served 
as  a  vegetable  if  boiled  (with  diced  bacon  added), 
or  it  may  be  boiled,  and  when  cold,  sliced,  fried, 
and  served  with  sirrup.  If  milk  is  available, 
" Hominy  and  Milk"  may  be  served. 

101.  VEGETABLES.  The  cash  credit  de- 
rived from  the  potato  component  is  sufficient 
to  cover  the  cost  of  all  fresh  vegetables  required 
for  the  kitchen,  providing  that  the  quality  is 
up  to  the  standard,  and  the  Commissary  makes 
good  all  loss  from  decay  and  sprouts.  Where 
a  good  garden  is  maintained,  a  considerable 
saving  should  be  made  on  this  component. 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  69 

From  14  to  16  ounces  of  potatoes  is  sufficient 
for  the  daily  consumption  of  one  man.  The 
onions  should  not  exceed  about  10  per  cent,  of 
the  issue.  They  are  used  best  for  the  purpose  of 
seasoning,  though  they  may  be  served  to  advan- 
tage as  a  vegetable  about  once  in  ten  days.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  tomatoes.  When  fresh 
vegetables  are  abundant,  a  saving  should  be  made 
on  the  potato  component  with  a  view  to  making 
other  purchases. 

102.  Potatoes  should  be  stored  in  a  cool, 
dry  place.  Warmth  and  moisture  hasten  decay 
and  promote  the  growth  of  sprouts.  The  sprouts 
should  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  appear,  as 
their  growth  exhausts  the  starch  and  renders  the 
potato  unfit  for  food. 

Potatoes  are  about  two-thirds  water.  The 
solid  matter  consists  mostly  of  starch,  though 
albuminous  matters  and  salts  are  present  in  small 
quantities.  In  the  presence  of  cold  water  a 
portion  of  the  starch  is  drawn  out  and  settles  to 
the  bottom  of  the  receptacle. 

Potatoes  that  have  been  frozen  and  quickly 
thawed  are  said  to  be  sweeter  than  others. 
Frozen  potatoes  should  be  kept  in  this  condition 


70         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

until  used.     To  thaw  them  out,  place  in  cold 
water  and  leave  until  used. 

103.  After  pealing,  potatoes  should  be  placed 
in  cold  water  and  allowed  to  remain  there  until 
ready  to  cook.     If  exposed  to  the  air,  they  will 
become  dark  colored  and  very  tough,  and  will 
retain  these  characteristics,  to  a  certain  extent, 
after  cooking. 

Potatoes  should  be  boiled  until  the  starch  cells 
are  broken.  This  requires  about  thirty  minutes, 
depending  upon  their  size,  and  this  condition  is 
noted  by  the  easy  penetration  of  the  tines  of  a 
fork.  The  water  should  now  be  drawn  off,  and 
the  potatoes  should  be  allowed  to  steam  for 
about  five  minutes  with  the  lid  off,  when  suffi- 
cient water  will  have  escaped  from  them  to  make 
them  mealy.  Should  the  water  not  be  allowed 
to  escape  from  them  in  this  manner,  the  starch 
will  absorb  it,  making  the  potato  gummy.  It 
is  said  that  the  longer  the  potato  remains  in  a 
dry  heat  above  125  degrees  Fahr.,  say  up  to  one 
and  one-half  hours,  the  more  "nutty"  and  sweet 
the  flavor  will  become. 

104.  For  the  reason  stated  above,  the  skin 
of  baked  potatoes  should  be  pierced  with  a  fork 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  71 

or  broken  to  allow  much  of  the  moisture  con- 
tained within  to  escape.  When  the  skins  of  boiled 
potatoes  are  broken,  they  will  remain  mealy  for 
a  long  time  if  kept  warm,  but  if  skins  are  not 
broken,  they  will  become  soggy.  Only  starchy 
foods  like  potatoes  and  rice  can  be  kept  for  a  long 
time  in  this  manner,  without  losing  their  color,  or 
acquiring  a  strong  flavor. 

Boiled,  mashed,  or  baked  potatoes  become  hard 
and  gummy  upon  cooling,  due  to  the  absorption 
of  the  water  by  the  starch  from  the  ruptured 
cells. 


105.     DEFINITIONS. 

(a)  Saratoga   Chips   are   thin   slices   of  raw 
potatoes,  fried  in  deep  lard. 

(b)  French  Fried  Potatoes  are  strips  of  pota- 
toes of  about  one-third  of  an  inch  cross  section, 
cut  lengthwise  from  the  raw  potatoe,  and  fried 
in  deep  lard. 

(c)  German  Boiled  Potatoes  are  boiled  potatoes 
cut  to  about  the  size  of  an  egg,  with  a  small 
amount  of  browned  onions  spread  over  them. 


72         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

(d)  German  Fried  Potatoes  are  raw  potatoes 
sliced  crosswise  and  stewed  in  a   closed  vessel 
(or  baked)  in  a  small  amount  of  onions,  stock  and 
fat. 

(e)  Browned  Potatoes  are  raw  or  boiled  pota- 
toes,  well  greased  and  baked  in  a  brisk  oven. 
Small  potatoes  are  frequently  used  up  in  this  way, 
but  all  should  be  of  about  the  same  size. 

(f)  Hashed    Potatoes     are     chopped     boiled 
potatoes,  mixed  with  stock,  placed  in  a  well  greased 
bake  pan,  greased  well  over  the  top,  and  baked 
in  a  brisk  oven. 

(g)  Chessed  Potatoes  are  the  same  as  hashed 
potatoes,  with  a  small  amount  of  grated  cheese 
added. 

(h)  Lyonnaise  Potatoes  are  prepared  by 
placing  boiled  potatoes  in  a  bake  pan,  covering 
them  with  about  one-tenth  the  amount  cf  fried 
onions,  spreading  over  with  fat,  and  baking  in  a 
brisk  oven. 

(i)  Creamed  Potatoes  are  prepared  from  raw 
potatoes,  cut  in  small  chunks,  and  stewed  in  a 
cream  gravy,  or  from  boiled  potatoes  similarly 
prepared  and  covered  with  hot  gravy. 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  73 

106.  All  left  over  potatoes   can  be  used  up 
in  the  form  of  fried  potatoes,  in  meat  balls,  or  in 
hash.     The  whole  potatoes  may  be  cut  up  and 
used  in  creamed  potatoes,   salads  and  soup,  in 
addition  to  the  forms  just  mentioned.     As  a  rule 
vegetables  left  over  from  any  meal  should  be  used 
up  in  some  other  form  within  the  next  twenty- 
four  hours.     In  warm  weather,  they  are  apt  to 
sour  if  kept  for  a  longer  period.     It  is  a  good  rule 
to  use  up  for  supper  all  foods  left  over  from 
breakfast  and  dinner. 

107.  Onions  and  Tomatoes.     Onions  are  most 
valuable  as  a  seasoning  for  soups,   stews,   and 
Hamburg  steaks,  and  in  the  preparation  of  salads, 
lyonnaise   potatoes,    and   beef   steak   smothered 
with  onions.     Boiled  Onions  are  a  very  palatable 
dish,   and  should  be  served  with  cream  sauce. 
Onions   so   served  are  soothing  to  the  mucous 
linings  of  the  stomach.     In  any  form  they  are 
said  to  possess  certain  medicinal  properties. 

Tomatoes  are  used  in  much  the  same  manner, 
being  most  valuable  as  a  seasoning  for  sauces, 
although  they  may  be  served  as  a  vegetable  or  2. 
salad. 


74         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

108.  Cabbage.     In    preparing    cabbage    for 
cooking,  it  should  be  first  quartered  longitudi- 
nally, and  held  for  a  few  minutes  with  the  head 
submerged  in  salt  water,  to  which  a  little  vinegar 
has  been  added.     This  will  rid  it  of  worms  and 
insects.     It  is  one  of  the  most  useful  vegetables 
when  properly  cooked,  and  is  invaluable  in  the 
fall  and  winter  when  other  vegetables  are  scarce. 
Cabbage   contains  a   certain  amount   of  sulfur, 
and  is  apt  to  be  indigestible  and  produce  flatu- 
lence when  improperly  cooked.     Cut  the  cabbage 
crosswise  in  rather  small  chunks,  and  completely 
submerge  while  cooking.     If  allowed  to  "steam" 
for  a  long  time,  or  if  cooked  longer  than  neces- 
sary,  it  becomes  discolored,  tough  and  indigest- 
ible.    It  should  be  done  in  about  one-half  hour. 
When  cooked  with  meat,  do  not  add  the -cabbage 
until  one-half  hour  to  40  minutes  before  time  for 
serving. 

109.  Parsnips    and    salsify    are    important 
vegetables  for  the  company  mess,  as  they  with- 
stand the  frost  and  may  be  left  in  the  ground 
over  winter,   making  it  possible  to  have  these 
vegetables  in  the  spring  when  other  vegetables 
are  scarce.     They  should,   however,  be  dug  in 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  75 

the  early  spring,  as  they  otherwise  will  become 
fibrous  and  tough. 

110.  Turnips,  beets  and  carrots,  for  summer 
and  fall  use,  should  be  the  quick  growing  kind, 
and  should  not  be  allowed  to  attain  any  great 
size.     When  grown  for  winter  use  these  vege- 
tables,  like  others  that  are  stored,   should  be- 
come well  matured,  as  otherwise  they  will  not 
keep. 

111.  Lettuce,    radishes   and   onions,    for   use 
during  the  summer,  must  be  planted  at  short 
intervals,  in  order  to  keep  the  table  well  supplied 
with  tender  fresh  vegetables.     The  more  rapidly 
they  grow  the  more  tender  they  will  be.     They 
should  be  kept  in  cold  water,  or  at  least  cool  and 
moist,  from  the  time  they  are  gathered  until  they 
are   served   on   the   table.     If   these  vegetables 
become  wilted,  they  will  be  greatly  freshened  by 
a  few  minutes  immersion  in  cold  water. 

112.  GENERAL    REMARKS.    All    green 
vegetables  should  be  firm  and  fresh  when  put 
on  to  cook.     New  vegetables  that  have  lost  this 
property  can  be  made  crisp  in  a  few  minutes  by 
soaking  in  cold  water.     Older  vegetables  may  re- 
quire hours.     Potatoes  that  have  been  kept  over 


76         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

until  spring  should  be  peeled  and  soaked  in  cold 
water  before  cooking. 

113.  Vegetables  should  be  placed  in  cold  water, 
brought  to  a  boil  and  cooked  continuously  until 
thoroughly   done,   but   no   longer.     The   boiling 
in  the  case  of  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  cauliflower, 
etc.,  should  not  be  so  violent  as  to  cause  them  to 
fall  to  pieces.     In  practice,  we  seem  to  get  equally 
good  results  by  placing  the  vegetables  in  boiling 
water,  and  frequently  do  so  as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience. 

114.  During  the  cooking  of  most  kinds  of 
food,  certain  gases  are  developed,  which,  if  re- 
tained in  the  food,  give  it  a  strong  flavor  and  odor, 
and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  in- 
jurious.    If  ventilated,  these  gases  will  pass  off 
in  the  steam,  but  if  submerged  while  cooking  the 
disagreeable  odors  are  avoided  as  the  sulfur,  etc., 
is  retained  in  the  water. 

115.  Overcooking  changes  and  toughens  the 
texture  of  vegetables  and  injures  those  substances 
that  contribute  to  their  flavor.     Such  vegetables 
are  inferior  in  flavor  and  appearance,  and  are 
often  indigestible  and  unpalatable. 

116.  DRIED    FRUITS.     This    component 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.      ,  77 

of  the  ration  is  an  important  one,  not  especially 
on  account  of  its  food  value,  which  is  relatively 
low,  considering  the  food  served,  but  for  the 
reason  that  the  peculiar  fruit  flavors  do  much  to 
tone  up  and  render  palatable  an  otherwise  mo- 
notonous or  uninviting  diet. 

117.  A    small    amount   of    certain    kinds   of 
acids  seems  to  be  craved  by  the  stomach,  and 
fruits  supply  them  in  a  very  attractive  manner. 
Green  fruits  contain  a  relatively  large  amount  of 
acids,   and  the  irritation  to  the  linings  of  the 
stomach  is  such  as  to  cause  diarrhea  and  colic. 
The  smaller  amount  supplied  by  ripened  fruits 
is   sufficient   to   lightly   stimulate   the  action  of 
sluggish  bowels  and  is  therefore  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  the  ration. 

118.  The  dried  fruits   issued   are   all   easily 
prepared  for  the  table.     They  are  too  frequently 
set  out  in  the  form  of  a  stew — this  being  the 
easiest  way  for  the  cook  to  get  rid  of  them.     Each 
can,   however,   be  made  into   a  very  palatable 
"butter"  which  is  greatly  relished  by  the  men. 
They  can  all  be  used  as  fillings  to  pies,  in  rolls, 
cobbler,    bread   puddings,    plum   duff,    etc.     To 
further  increase  the  variety  of  the  dried  fruits 


78         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

a  saving  from  the  cash  credit  accruing  from  this 
component  should  be  applied  to  the  purchase  of 
fresh  fruit. 

119.  All    dried  fruit    should    be    washed    in 
from  one  to  three  waters,  to  remove  the  sand, 
worms,  etc.,  that  may  be  present.     They  should 
then  be  placed  in  cold  water  and  be  allowed  to 
soak  for  from  one  to  three  hours,  then  brought 
to  a  boil  in  the  same  water,  and  allowed  to  simmer 
until  thoroughly  done. 

120.  The  following  receipe  for  "butter" •  was 
furnished  by  Major  Wilkins,  Subsistence  Depart- 
ment.    It  has  been  tried  with  excellent  results. 

1.  Thoroughly  wash  the  evaporated  fruit. 

2.  Cover  with  plenty  of  water  and  soak  over 
night. 

3.  Stew  slowly  until  tender. 

4.  Rub  through  a  colander  and  add  three- 
fourths  of  a  pound  of  sugar  to  each  pound  of  dried 
fruit  originally  used,  also  one  teaspoonful  of  cloves 
and  two  of  cinnamon  and  a  little  vinegar  to  each 
pound  of  dried  fruit. 

121.  COFFEE.     Our  coffee  rations  is  much 
abused.     It  is  now  issued  roasted  and  ground, 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  79 

and  in  a  wooden  crate  or  box  with  paper  lining. 
It  quickly  loses  its  aroma  after  the  package  is 
opened  and  the  coffee  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 
Upon  receipt,  it  should  be  at  once  transferred  to 
air  tight  cans  or  jars.  It  would,  however,  be  far 
better  to  roast  green  coffee  in  small  quantities, 
grinding  for  each  meal  only  such  amount  as  may 
be  consumed  at  that  time.  Rcasted  and  ground 
coffee  is  easily  adulterated,  but  its  use  is  gener- 
ally recommended  as  few  Army  Cooks  can  roast 
coffee  to  perfection. 

122.  Remember  that  in  making  coffee,  fresh 
water  should  be  used,  and  under  no  circumstances 
either  before  or  after  the  coffee  is  introduced  should 
the  water  be  allowed  to  boil  so  violently  as  to  carry 
off  the  air  it  contains.  With  the  disappearance 
of  the  air,  the  coffee  becomes  more  or  less  flat 
and  insipid.  If  the  water  is  allowed  to  boil 
after  the  coffee  is  introduced,  the  volatile  oil 
which  gives  it  the  fragrant  aroma,  is  quickly 
dissipated  and  fills  the  room  with  an  agreeable 
odor,  but  ruins  the  coffee.  Furthermore,  boiling 
of  coffee  for  more  than  five  minutes  extracts 
the  tannic  acid  and  forms  injurious  compounds. 
It  combines  with  cream  or  milk  and  forms  a 
leathery,  indigestible  compound  that  irritates 


80         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

the  membranes  of  the  stomach.  The  coffee  should 
not  be  allowed  to  accumulate,  for  more  than  three 
meals  or  be  carrried  over  from  one  day  to  the 
next.  Thereafter  the  first  grains  introduced 
supply  practically  nothing  but  color,  and  a  bitter 
taste. 

123.  For  the  reasons   stated,   it  is   evident 
that  it  is  best  to  make  coffee  in  a  porcelain  lined 
receptacle  or  a  jar,  rather  than  iron  or  tin,  when 
practicable.     In  preparing  the  coffee,  the  boiler 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  range  until 
the  water  comes  to  a  boil;  add  the  coffee  and  set 
the  boiler  off,  or  where  it  will  only  simmer  for 
a  half  hour  or  so  before  serving.     If  there  is  not 
sufficient  time  for  this,  the  coffee  may  be  allowed 
to  boil  about  five  minutes  before  setting  off  the 
range. 

124.  Allow  one  pint  of  liquid  coffee  per  man. 
Starting  out  with  fresh  coffee,  use  five  ounces  of 
the  ground  coffee  per  gallon  of  water.     For  the 
next  meal,  add  to  this  four  ounces  of  coffee  for 
each  gallon  water  of  added,  and  for  the  next  meal 
three.     After  having  allowed  the  coffee  to  accu- 
mulate for  three  meals,   throw  it   all   out   and 
thoroughly  scour  the  boiler  before  the  next  meal. 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  81 

If  desired,  the  coffee  may  be  placed  in  sacks 
while  cooking,  but  it  should  have  plenty  of  room 
to  allow  circulation  of  water  through  it.  By  this 
method,  the  boiler  is  kept  cleaner,  but  it  takes 
longer  to  extract  the  flavor.  It  is  recommended 
that  where  practicable  the  coffee  grains  be  placed 
in  a  open  sack  supported  by  a  ring  resting  on  lugs 
on  the  inside  of  the  boiler,  and  that  the  water  be 
poured  through  the  sack  at  least  twice. 

125.  When  soup  is  served,   coffee  need  not 
be,  though  if  it  is,  the  consumption  is  reduced 
about  one-half,  and  frequently  the  same  is  ob- 
served when  water  is  placed  upon  the  table,  for 
very  often  the  men  take  coffee  only  because  there 
is  no  water  at  hand. 

126.  We  recommend  that  coffee  be  served  in 
porcelain  lined  coffee  pots,  so  that  the  men  may  help 
themselves,  and  in  order  that  the  coffee  may  be 
kept  hot,  instead  of  giving  up  the  greater  portion 
of  the  heat  present  to  bring  up  the  temperature 
of  the  heavy  chinaware  pitchers  that  are  fre- 
quently used.     If  coffee  is  served  in  the  heavy 
chinaware  cups,  it  will  generally  be  cold  before 
the  men  are  ready  to  drink  it,  and  in  addition, 


82         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

much  will  be  served  that  will  not  be  consumed 
and  is  consequently  a  dead  loss,  whereas  if  it 
had  been  left  in  the  coffee  pots,  it  could  have  been 
retained,  and  used  up  at  the  next  meal.  The 
coffee  allowance  is  sufficient  for  serving  twice  a 
day  only — say  by  using  five  ounces  per  gall  (1 
pint  per  man)  for  breakfast,  and  four  ounces  for 
each  gallon  of  water  added  to  that  left  over  from 
breakfast.  If  tea  is  used  for  the  second  meal,  a 
money  saving  is  made. 

127.  Coffee  stimulates  the  nervous  system 
without  reaction  and  retards  changes  in  tissues. 
Its  effect  on  the  digestion  is  the  subject  of  much 
difference   of   opinion.     Chicory   and   coffee   ex- 
tracts are  considered  both  harmless  and  worth- 
less.    Especially  in  the  field,  the  full  strength  of 
the  coffee  is  desired  and  the  so-called  substitutes 
serve  but  to  deceive  the  uninformed. 

128.  TEA.     Tea  is  coming  more  into  favor 
with  our  men,  and  is  now  used  quite  generally  for 
supper  each  day.     It  has  practically  the  same 
physiological  effect  as  coffee,  but  has  the  advan- 
tage of  lightness  and  smallness  of  bulk.     In  pre- 
paring tea,  it  is  best  to  first  pour  over  it  a  small 
quantity  of  boiling  hot  water  to  cleanse  it  and 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  83 

remove  such  coloring  matters  as  may  be  present. 
Then  put  the  leaves  in  a  tea  basket,  or  muslin 
sack,  in  an  earthenware  receptacle  and  pour 
boiling  hot  water  through  them  and  allow  to 
1 '  draw ' '  for  about  five  minutes  before  serving.  If 
the  leaves  stand  longer  in  the  water,  a  bitter 
flavor  is  drawn  out  which  is  very  objectionable. 

129.  Three-fourths  of  an  ounce  per  gallon 
makes  a  very  strong  tea,   and  one-half  ounce, 
medium.     Sliced  lemon  is  said  to  be  a  good  sub- 
stitute for  milk  in  tea.     It  is  claimed  that  it  pre- 
vents the  headache  and  sleeplessness  to  which 
many  persons  are  subject  from  its  use. 

130.  SUGAR.     Sugar  may  be  considered  a 
cheap  article  of  diet,  considering  the  high  nutri- 
tive value,   which  is  not  generally  appreciated 
as  it  should  be.     In  most  organizations,  this  com- 
ponent is  hardly  sufficient.     Generally  about  25 
per  cent,  more  than  the  issue  allowance  is  con- 
sumed, although  in  some  cases  a  small  saving  is 
made.     Next  to  fat  and  oil,  it  furnishes  the  most 
complete  food  for  heat  and  energy  that  can  be 
consumed.     It  is  a  quick  acting  food,  being  readily 
absorbed  into  the   circulation  and  is  therefore 
especially  valuable  to  relieve  exhaustion.     It  is 


84        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

particularly  useful  for  soldiers  engaged  in  a  forced 
march. 

We  are  of  the  opinion  that,  if  sugar  is  placed 
on  the  table  for  general  use,  and  extravagant 
waste  prevented  by  the  Mess  Sergeant,  it  would 
not  greatly  increase  the  bills  at  the  end  of  the 
month.  If  eating  more  than  a  normal  amount  of 
sugar,  a  lesser  amount  of  higher  priced  food  will 
be  consumed.  Granulated  sugar  is  considered 
the  best  and  the  cheapest  to  use.  Cut-loaf  sugar 
would  prove  expensive  in  mounted  commands, 
as  soldiers  are  not  slow  in  rewarding  their  favorite 
mounts  with  a  few  lumps  when  it  can  be  done  with 
so  little  effort. 

131.  The  men  should  be  allowed  to  sweeten 
their  own  coffee,  but  the  Mess  Sergeant  will  have 
to  caution  them  against  extravagance  by  leaving 
unused   sugar  in   their   cups.     During   the   first 
week  of  such  liberty  the  consumption  of  sugar 
is  quite  large,  but  under  proper  supervision,  it 
soon  subsides  to  a  normal  expenditure. 

132.  Granulated  sugar  makes  an  excellent 
sirup  for  table  use;    it  is  cheaper   than   other 
sirups  and  generally  better  liked  by  the  men.     In 
making  the  sirup,  take  a  gallon  measure  and  put 
one  quart  of  water  in  it;  then  add  about  six  and 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  85 

one-half  pounds  of  sugar,  and  let  boil  for  about 
fifteen  minutes.  If  the  resulting  mixture  is  less 
than  one  gallon,  add  sufficient  boiling  water  to 
make  the  full  gallon  and  allow  it  to  boil  for  a  few 
minutes.  For  flavoring,  use  one-fourth  pint  of 
vinegar  as  part  of  the  liquid  added,  or  better 
still,  use  lemon  instead  of  vinegar,  and  one-half 
ounce  of  lemon  extract.  Juices  of  fruits  may  be 
used  wholly,  or  in  part,  in  the  place  of  the  water. 

133.  EVAPORATED   MILK  has  been  re- 
duced from  the  "whole  milk"  and  to  restore  it  to 
its  former  consistency,  it  is  necessary  to  add  the 
same  amount  of  water  as  was  evaporated.     For 
oat  meal,  two  one-pound  cans  of  evaporated  milk 
in  sufficient  water  to  make  a  gallon  of  milk.     In 
our  experience,  we  favor  the  use  of  evaporated 
milk  in  company  kitchens.     It  has  been  sterilized, 
is  of  uniform  quality,  and  is  well  liked  by  the 
men.     When  using  only  the  issue  allowance,  we 
do  not  attempt  to  put  it  in  our  coffee,  but  reserve 
it  for  puddings,  sauces,  cakes,  etc. 

134.  Powdered  Milk  will  probably  come  into 
more  general  use,  especially  in  the  field.     About 
one  pound  of  the  powdered  milk  per  gallon  of  water 
is  considered  sufficient. 


86        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

135.  CONDIMENTS    OR    SEASONINGS 

are  not,  as  a  rule,  foods  in  the  strictest  sense  of 
the  term,  but  they  are  quite  an  essential  part 
of  the  diet.  They  are  important,  in  that  they 
improve  the  appetite  and  the  digestive  powers, 
and  are  consequently  more  important  for  the 
invalid  and  convalescent,  and  those  of  sedentary 
habits  than  for  the  healthy  person.  Experiment 
shows  that  for  the  latter,  unseasoned  foods  are 
quite  as  easily  digested  as  others,  though  eaten 
with  less  relish. 

136.  The    allowance    of    seasonings    is    just 
about  sufficient.     Any  excess  used,  or  any  savings 
made,  will  generally  affect  the  cash  account  but 
little.     Condiments  act  through  the  senses  of  smell 
and  taste  reflectively  on  the  digestive  organs,  as 
well  as  locally  when  coming  in  immediate  contact 
with  the  linings  of  the  stomach.     In  either  case 
the  flow  of  the  digestive  juices  is  stimulated  and 
the  digestion  is  aided.     In  those  particular  cases 
where  the  linings  of  the  stomach,  intestines,  etc., 
are   already  inflamed,   high   seasoning   must   be 
avoided. 

137.  A  food  is  but  half  prepared  when  the 
cooking  is  only  done.     It  requires  delicate,  varied, 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  87 

and  well-selected  seasoning  to  do  the  rest.  Too 
many  cooks  are  devoid  of  a  keen  sense  of  taste, 
or  at  least  exercise  little  or  no  judgment  in 
seasoning  their  food;  they  too  often  rely  upon 
pepper  and  salt  alone.  This  is  just  the  reason 
that  soups  are  so  frequently  held  in  disfavor  in 
the  service  at  large.  The  first  requirement  is  a 
good  stock;  second,  a  varied  and  substantial  fill- 
ing (various  kinds  of  mixed  vegetables — say 
one  quart  to  the  gallon,  dried  bacon,  etc.) ;  third, 
a  palatable  seasoning  such  as  can  be  obtained 
from  red  peppers,  chopped  parsley,  and  a  limited 
assortment  of  herbs  properly  applied.  Varied 
and  savory  condiments  are  necessary  to  tone  up 
an  otherwise  flat  and  insipid  dish  and  make  it 
popular  and  much  craved  by  the  men,  instead  of 
a  repulsive  "dish-water"  introduction  to  the 
meal. 

138.  Sugar,  though  constantly  used  for 
seasoning,  is  most  useful  as  a  food.  The  sweeten- 
ing element  is  saccharin,  which  has  no  food  value. 
Use  one  to  two  pounds  per  gallon  of  mixture  with 
puddings,  custards,  and  sweet  doughs.  For  rice, 
tapioca  pudding,  etc.,  double  the  amounts  of 
seasoning  used.  Generally,  from  three  to  four 


88         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

ounces  per  gallon  of  coffee  is  considered  sufficient, 
when  the  coffee  is  sweetened  in  the  kitchen. 

139.  Salt    is    the    only    condiment    actually 
necessary  to  health.     It  is  probably  taken  in  suf- 
ficient quantities  in  ordinary  foods,  but  such  ad- 
ditions as  may  be  made  to  give  an  agreeable  flavor 
is    not    injurious.     In    seasoning    soups,    three- 
fourths  of  an  ounce  of  salt  per  gallon;  for  stews, 
and  mashed  potatoes,  about  one-half  of  an  ounce 
per  gallon. 

140.  Bacon   (or  Ham)   diced  or  sliced,   can 
be  used  to  advantage  in  almost  any  meat,  fresh  or 
dried  vegetable  component,  and  nothing  is  rel- 
ished more.     Use  about  one  pound  of  bacon  to  five 
pounds  of  dried  vegetables,  or  to  fifteen  pounds 
of  fresh  vegetables. 

141.  Onions,  parsnips,  carrots,  tomatoes,  sal- 
sify, etc.,  have  a  valuable  place  in  the  seasoning 
of  soups,  stews,  etc.,  and  are  much  appreciated. 
In  soups  we  use  about  one  quart  of  mixed  chopped 
vegetables  in  addition  to  about  two  ounces  of  rice, 
or  barley,  or  macaroni,  etc.,  for  each  galllon  of 
liquid. 

142.  Pepper  is  stimulating  when  used  in  small 
quantities,  but  irritating  when  used  to  excess. 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  89 

Red  or  Cayenne  Pepper  is  far  more  wholesome 
than  black  or  white  pepper,  though  not  com- 
monly used.  In  seasoning  soups,  use  one- 
eighth  of  an  ounce  per  gallon,  and  for  stews  and 
mashed  vegetables,  about  two-thirds  as  much. 
Two  sweet  red  peppers  per  gallon  of  soup  is  ample. 

143.  Garlic  is  much  used  in  small  quantities 
to  bring  out  the  flavors  of  other  condiments.     For 
example,  one  or  two  of  the  small  bulbs  would  be 
sufficient  for  eight  or  ten  gallons  of  soup. 

144.  Mustard,  when  used  in  small  quantities, 
is  good  for  digestion.     It  can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage with  ham,  baked  beans,  and  other  heavy 
foods,  and  when  such  foods  are  served  it  should 
be  placed  on  the  table. 

145.  Herbs,   such  as  mint,   parsley,   thyme, 
bay  leaves,  capers,  etc.,  are  found  in  considerable 
variety  on  the  market  at  very  reasonable  prices. 
They  are  used  to  great  advantage  in  meats,  stews, 
soups,  chowders,  and  sauces.     Use  one  bunch  of 
green  parsley  for  five  gallons  of  soup,   and  in 
addition,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  dried  herbs. 

146.  Spices    are    generally    used    in    cakes, 
and  articles  of  food  containing  sugar,  and  some- 
times with  meats,  either  whole,  ground,  or  as  an 


90         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

extract.  Ginger  is  perhaps  the  most  healthful, 
and  is  often  used  in  sickness,  and  as  a  tonic  in 
hot  weather.  The  other  spices  are  better  mixed 
in  small  quantities,  for  example,  using  less  of 
cloves  and  more  of  cinnamon,  but  no  one  spice 
greatly  predominating,  or  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  hide  the  natural  flavor  of  the  food. 

147.  Flavors  are  all  good  in  small  quantities. 
They  should  not  be  added  while  the  article  is 
hot,  as  the  heat  wastes  their  strength — the  aroma 
passing  off  with  the  vapors.     When  possible,  it 
is  best  to  use  natural  fruit  juices.     Others  are 
much  subject  to  adulteration. 

148.  Lemon  and  Vinegar  increase  the  solvent 
power  of  the  gastric  juice,  and  are  useful  with 
meats  and  vegetables  that  are  difficult  of  diges- 
tion.    A  little  vinegar  or  lemon  juice  added  to 
tough  meats  before  cooking  does  much  to  break 
down  the  resisting  fibers. 

149.  LARD,    ETC.     The    credit    allowance 
for  this  component  is  generally  sufficient.     If  a 
standard  quality  of  beef  is  supplied  and  the  suet 
with  surplus  fat  is  carefully  rendered,  this  with 
the  trimmings  of  fat  from  roasted  and  boiled 
meat,  and  the  grease  skimmed  from  stock,  soups, 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  91 

and  gravies,  will  furnish  all  shortenings,  drip- 
pings, etc.,  required  for  kitchen  use.  If  a  pork 
carcass,  or  parts  of  a  carcass,  with  all  the  natural 
fats  is  supplied  from  time  to  time,  a  corresponding 
saving  should  be  made  on  this  component. 

150.  Handling  the  Suet.  Keep  a  long,  deep, 
narrow  bake  pan  constantly  on  the  range  for 
a  general  receptacle  for  beef  fat,  etc.  Each 
day  place  the  suet  and  fat  trimmings  in  the  pan, 
and  from  time  to  time,  as  the  floating  grease 
gathers  on  the  surface  of  gravies,  soups,  stews, 
etc.,  skim  it  off  and  transfer  it  to  the  pan.  All 
fats  should  be  trimmed  from  cooked  meats  in 
the  kitchen  and  saved  in  the  same  manner.  At 
the  end  of  the  day,  the  accumulated  grease  is 
strained  off  into  an  earthenware  receptacle  and 
set  in  a  cool  place.  The  pan  is  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  a  fresh  start  made  each  day.  The 
accumulation  of  grease,  which  includes  all  that 
collected  in  the  kitchen,  excepting  lard  (hog  fat), 
is  called  drippings,  and  is  used  for  general  pur- 
poses— generally  in  deep  or  shallow  fryings,  or, 
if  carefully  strained,  in  ordinary  pastry  work. 
For  the  latter,  lard  is  better,  but  the  drippings 
may  be  used  in  anything  that  is  to  be  eaten  hot. 
On  account  of  the  relatively  hie^h  melting  point 


92         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

of  beef  fat,  a  slightly  tallowy  taste  is  some- 
times left  in  the  mouth  after  eating  cold  prepara- 
tions in  which  the  drippings  or  suet  have  been 
used. 

151.  Compound.     If    additional     shortening 
is  desired,  it  is  recommended  that  compound  be 
purchased  instead  of  lard  (see  definitions).     It  is 
perfectly    wholesome,    devoid    of    objectionable 
flavor,  and  comparatively  cheap. 

152.  BUTTER.     If  this  component  used  is 
on  the  table,  it  can  be  served  three  of  four  times 
in  the  ten  day  period,  besides  being  used  sparingly 
in   cooking.     Note,    however,    that   the   govern- 
ment allowance  is  one-half  ounce  per  man  per 
day,  and  where  individual  butter  plates  have  been 
used,   many   organizations  have  served  it   once 
each  day,  e.  g.,  for  breakfast,  with  hot  cakes,  or 
for  supper,  with  hot  rolls,  with  entire  satisfaction. 
Many  organizations  prefer  to  save  it  altogether, 
and  make  other  purchases  instead.     If  difficulty 
is  experienced  in  living  on  the  straight  ration,  it 
is  recommended  that  this  component  be  saved, 
and  if  ''butter"  is  desired,  oleomargarin,  which 
is  every  bit  as  good,  be  purchased  (uncolored)  at 
from  one-half  to  two-thirds  the  price. 


THE  GARRISON  RATION,  93 

153.  When  butter  becomes   lightly  rancid 
it  should  be  worked  over  in  cold  water,  and  then 
the  desired  amount  of  salt  added.     If  but  slightly 
rancid,  it  may  be  used  in  custards,  cakes,  pies, 
etc.     If  rather  too  rancid  for  this  purpose  and  yet 
not  very  stale,  it  may  be  refreshened  as  follows: 
Place  the  butter  in  plenty  of  hot  water  and  let  it 
boil  for  about  half  an  hour,  set  to  one  side  and 
when  the  water  has  cooled  to,  say  about  55  de- 
grees Fahr.,  the  butter  will  have  hardened  on  the 
surface  so  that  it  may  easily  be  removed  in  the 
same  manner  as  cakes  of  grease  from  beef  stock. 

Or,  the  butter  may  be  placed  on  the  range 
and  boiled  until  the  moisture  and  acids  have  been 
evaporated,  but  in  this  case,  the  butter  will  take 
on  a  darker  color.  If  heated  in  a  steam  jacket 
boiler,  the  removal  of  the  moisture  and  acids 
will  take  place  at  a  lower  temperature,  and  the 
butter  will  not'  become  discolored.  Boiled  butter 
does  not  possess  a  very  fine  flavor,  but  will  keep 
as  long  as  lard  under  the  same  conditions. 

154.  SIRUP.     This  component  is  provided 
in  about  the  right  proportion,  but  the  men  do  not 
always   like   the   brands   generally   sold   at   the 
Commissary,  on  account  of  their  peculiar  flavor; 


94         THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

and  a  cheaper  grade,  either  purchased  on  the 
market,  or  made  from  granulated  sugar,  is  fre- 
quently more  acceptable. 

155.  Salads.     A  good  potato  salad  (or  one 
of  onions,  beets,  or  lettuce)  can  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  the  company  mess  for  the  Sunday 
evening  supper.    After  a  hearty  ' '  Sunday  dinner ' ' 
a  cold  supper  may  be  prepared,  and  bologna,  cold 
roast  beef,  or  ham  will  furnish  a  suitable  meat 
component  for  the  meal.     At  other  times  during 
the  week,  as  when  baked  beans,  pease,  or  other 
dried  vegetables  are  used,  a  piccalilli  salad,  hot  or 
cold  slaw,  or  other  similar  preparation  of  which 
vinegar  or  pickles  form  a  part,  can  be  used  to 
advantage.     On  days  when  baked  beans  have 
been  on  the  bill  of  fare  for  dinner,  it  is  frequently 
convenient  to  make  up  a  small  amount  of  salad 
as  a  "side  dish"  for  supper,  by  using  up  the  left- 
over baked  beans,  to  which  have  been  added  a 
good  proportion  of  chopped  raw  onions,  pickles 
and  tomatoes. 

156.  Dessert.      To    many    company    com- 
manders the  word  dessert  is  a  synonym  for  lux- 
ury and  useless  and  extravagant  waste.     As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  ration  contains  within  itself 


THE  GARRISON  RATION.  95 

all  the  materials  necessary  for  providing  a  dessert 
ever}'  day,  and  it  is  frequently  one  of  the  cheapest 
components  of  the  meal.  Almost  anything  in 
the  shape  of  cheap  cake,  or  rice  pudding,  bread 
puddings,  plum  duff,  etc.,  will  be  greatly  relished 
if  a  palatable  sauce  is  provided;  the  sauce  is  to 
the  dessert  even  more  than  the  seasoning  to  ether 
foods.  The  sauce  may  be  as  cheap,  or  as  inex- 
pensive, as  the  cook  desires  to  make  it,  and  the 
entire  dessert  need  not  cost  but  a  fraction  ever 
one  cent,  or  even  less  than  one  cent,  per  man 
though  more  expensive  desserts  should  be  provided 
as  often  as  the  funds  will  allow. 

157.  One  gallon  of  sauce  may  be  regarded 
as  sufficient  for  25  men.  It  can  be  made  with 
three  quarts  of  water,  two  pounds  of  sugar  and 
one-fourth  pint  of  vinegar,  together  with  about 
four  ounces  of  corn  starch,  or  five  ounces  of 
flour,  made  into  a  batter.  Or,  it  may  be  made 
richer  and  more  finely  flavored  as  follows:  Add 
a  one-pound  can  of  evaporated  milk  in  the  place 
of  one  pint  of  water,  the  juice  cf  a  half-dozen 
lemons,  or  cf  four  oranges,  or  other  fruit  juices, 
in  the  place  of  vinegar,  one-half  pound  of  butter, 
and  after  the  sauce  has  cooled,  one-half  ounce  cf 


96        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

extract.  The  mixture  may  be  given  a  rich  color 
by  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  caramel- 
ized sugar.  The  sauce  may  be  prepared  in  a 
dozen  different  ways  and  still  be  very  inexpensive. 
In  addition  to  the  puddings  and  sauces,  excellent 
pies  may  be  made  from  the  articles  forming  a 
part  of  the  issue  ration.  Even  mince  meat  can 
be  easily  prepared  from  the  articles  sold  as  a 
part  of  the  garrison  ration,  and  the  dried  fruit 
put  out  in  various  forms.  (See  Pars.  116—120). 
A  palatable  dessert  may  be  served  every  day 
while  living  on  the  straight  ration  or  less. 


CHAPTER  V. 

MILK,    CHEESE,    BUTTER,    LARD,    COM- 
POUNDS, ETC. 

158.  MILK.      According    to    the    standard 
adopted  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Milk 
is  the  clean  product  obtained  by  the  complete 
milking  of  one  or  more  healthy  cows,  properly 
fed  and  kept,  excluding  that  obtained  within  15 
days  before  and  10  days  after  calving,  and  con- 
taining not  less  than  8X  per  cent,  of  solids  (pro- 
tein, sugar,  and  mineral  matters)  and  in  addition 
not  less  than  3^  per  cent,  of  fats.     It  contains 
about  87  or  88  per  cent,  of  water. 

159.  There  is  no  food  that  varies  more  in 
composition.     For  instance,  the  Holstein  breed  of 
cattle  produces  a  milk  with  the  minimum  amount 
of  fat,  and  the  Jersey  about  double  the  amount. 
The   composition   of  the  milk  of  a   single   cow 
varies  greatly  from  day  to  day  on  account  of  her 
method  of  feeding,  and  a  more  fixed  quality  of 

97 


98        THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

milk  is  obtainable  from  the  dairy  milk  of  the  herd 
than  from  any  one  particular  animal. 

160.  While   the   milk   coming   from   a   per- 
fectly healthy  and  clean  cow  may  be  regarded  as 
sterile,    we   might   very   properly    question    the 
purity  of  milk  that  comes  from  cows  that  have 
not  been  subjected  to  the  tuberculin  test,  and 
with  whose  care,  attendance  and  milking  we  are- 
not  familiar. 

161.  Disease  germs  may  be  derived  from  the 
animal  itself  on  account  of  being  diseased,  or  from 
unclean  surroundings  or  carelessness  in  handling 
the  milk. 

Germs,  once  finding  their  way  into  milk, 
multiply  with  great  rapidity.  They  are  of  two 
distinct  classes,  those  that  produce  or  promote 
souring,  and  disease  germs.  The  former  are  said 
to  be  harmless  unless  in  such  quantities  as  to  pro- 
duce diarrhe'a,  but  owing  to  their  presence  milk 
cannot  be  kept  for  any  great  length  of  time  with- 
out souring. 

162.  Among   the    diseases   known   to    have 
been  conveyed  by  milk  are  diptheria,  typhoid, 
tuberculosis  and  perhaps  scarlatina  and  cholera. 


MILK,  CHEESE,  LARD,  ETC.  99 

These  germs  are,  however,  more  easily  destroyed 
than  the  first  class,  and  by  a  very  simple  process. 

163.  Pasteurized    Milk.     This    is   milk  that 
has  been  kept  at  a  temperature  somewhat  below 
the  boiling  point — about  158  degrees  Fahr. — for 
20  to  30  minutes.     This  process  is  such  as  to  de- 
stroy most  of  the  disease  germs  that  may  be  present 
though  it  will  not  keep  the  milk  from  spoiling 
for  more  than  2  or  3  days,  ulness  kept  below  55 
degrees    Fahr.     Pasteurized   milk   is    almost    as 
digestible  as  raw  milk,  but  it  deteriorates  rapidly 
and  should  be  used  as  soon  as  possible. 

164.  Boiled    Milk.     The    most    satisfactory 
method  of  procedure  is  perhaps  to  boil  the  milk 
for  a  few  minutes,  cool  quickly  and  strain.     This 
does  not  alter  the  taste  greatly,  but  if  boiled  for 
any  great  length  of  time  it  loses  its  natural  flavor 
and  is  rendered  more  indigestible. 

165.  Powdered  or  Desiccated  Milk.     This  is 
produced  by  passing  a  thin  sheet  of  milk  between 
two  heated  rollers  in  such  a  way  as  to  desiccate 
it   immediately.     It  is   then  broken  up   into  a 
fine  soluble  powder  and  only  requires  the  addition 
of  water  to  bring  it  back  to  the  condition  of 
natural    milk    again.     This    powdered    form    of 


100       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

milk  contains  all  of  the  solids  of  the  original  milk 
in  a  sterile  and  soluble  form  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  but  that  desiccated  milk  will  come  into 
large  use  in  the  near  future. 

166.  Evaporated  Milk  is  produced  by  evapo- 
rating a  considerable  portion  of  the  water  in  milk. 
It  contains  not  less  than  28  per  cent,  of  solids. 
The  term  Evaporated  Cream  is  no  longer  in  use, 
but  was  formerly  applied  to  what  is  now  known  in 
the  trade  as  evaporated  milk. 

167.  Condensed  Milk  is  the  same  as  evapo- 
rated milk,  with  about  40  per  cent,  of  cane  sugar 
added. 

168.  Skimmed  Milk  is  milk  from  which  a 
portion  of  the  fat  has  been  removed.     If  the  cream 
has   been   removed   by   the   natural   process   of 
allowing  it  to  rise,  a  considerable  amount  of  fat 
still  remains  in  the  milk.     If  the  cream  is  removed 
by  means  of  a  separator,  little  fat  remains,  and 
such  milk  should  be  termed  " Separator  Milk." 
The  chief  prejudice  against  skimmed  milk  arises 
from  the  reason  that  it  is  frequently  disposed  of 
as  "whole  milk,"  that  is,  milk  from  which  the 
cream  has  not  been  extracted.     It  is  still  a  valu- 
able food — lacking  only  fat,   and  this  may  be 


MILK,  CHEESE,  LARD,  ETC.  101 

abundantly  supplied  by  other  foods.  Skimmed 
milk  is  used  in  great  quantities  as  food  for  pigs 
and  poultry. 

169.  Sterilized  Milk  is  milk  that  has  been 
heated  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  or 
higher   for   a   length   of   time    (say  20  minutes) 
sufficient  to  kill  all  organisms  present. 

170.  Cream  is  that  portion  of  milk,  rich  in 
fat,  that  rises  to  the  surface  of  milk  on  standing, 
or  separated  from  it  by  centrifugal  force.     It  con- 
tains not  less  than  18  per  cent,  of  milk  fat. 

171.  Double  Cream  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
thick   cream   that   is   drawn   from   a   Separator 
running  at  a  low  rate  of  speed,  in  distinction  from 
that  extracted  when  the  Separator  is  run  at  full 
speed. 

172.  Buttermilk  is  the  product  that  remains 
after  the  butter  is  removed  from  the  milk  or  cream 
during  the  process  of  churning. 

173.  CHEESE  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  oldest 
forms  of  food  prepared  for  the  use  of  man.     The 
term  is  applied  to  the  solid  product  produced 
from   milk   by    coagulation   of   the   casein   with 
rennet   (a  ferment  generally  'prepared  from  the 
fourth  stomach  of  calves)  or  with?  lactic  acid  and 


102       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

subjecting  the  solid  product  thus  produced  to  a 
process  of  fermentation  and  ripening  by  the 
addition  of  appropriate  seasoning  material,  sea- 
soning and  subjecting  to  storing  at  a  convenient 
temperature  for  different  lengths  of  time.  The 
ferments  introduced  produce  certain  changes  in 
the  material  and  develop  an  aroma  and  flavor 
more  or  less  agreeable  to  the  smell  and  taste. 

174.  Full  Cream  Cheese  is  made  from  milk 
containing  its  full  complement  of  cream. 

175.  Cream  Cheese  may  contain  any  qaun- 
tity  of  cream,  but  generally  has  less  than  the  so- 
called,  "Full  Cream  Cheese." 

176.  Swiss   Cheese   is   the   term   applied   to 
any  hard,  tough  cheese  in  which  are  found  a  large 
number  of  holes.     When  cut  it  makes  a  leathery, 
flexible  slice  and  has  more  or  less  of  the  flavor 
of  the  genuine  Swiss  Cheese. 

177.  Filled    Cheese    is    a    term    applied    to 
cheese  in  which  the  place  of  the  natural  milk  fat 
is  taken  by  fat  from  some  other  source.     Neutral 
Lard  is  used  frequently  in  this  connection.     Filled 
Cheese  is  a  poor  imitation  for  the  reason  that 
the  same  aroma  and  flavor  cannot  be  developed 
as  in  cheese  cpntaining  the  natural  milk  fat. 


MILK,  CHEESE,  LARD,  ETC.  103 

178.  Cottage  Cheese  is  a  nutritious  and  pala- 
table product  of  home  manufacturer,  and  is  not 
suitable    for    keeping    or    transporation.     It    is 
generally  made  frcm  sour  milk  in  which  the  casein 
has  coagulated  by  the  natural  formation  of  lactic 
acid.     The  sour  milk  is  placed  in  a  muslin  bag 
and  the  Vhey  separated  by  gravitation,  or  forced 
out  by  pressure.     It  is  then  salted  to  taste,  and 
often  cream  is  added  to  make  it  more  nutritious 
and  wholesome. 

179.  Limburger    Cheese    is   made  from  pure 
milk,  or  that  from  which  a  portion  of  the  cream 
has  been  removed.     The  peculiar  flavor  and  smell 
are  developed  largely  as  a  result  of  keeping  it 
stored  for  a  period  of  about  6  weeks  in  atmos- 
phere saturated  with  moisture  and  at  a  low  tem- 
perature. 

180.  Edam  Cheese  is  a  hard,  highly  colored 
Cream  Cheese,  cften  covered  with  paraffin,  manu- 
factured at  a  small  town  called  Edam  near  Amster- 
dam, Holland. 

181.  Roquefort    Cheese    is    a    foreign    cheese 
made  from  ewe's  milk. 

182.  Cheese  has  about  twice  the  nutritive  value 
of  an  equal  weight  of  fresh  meat.     On  account  of  the 


104       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

amount  of  fat  present,  it  is  considered  rather 
difficult  of  digestion  for  weak  stomachs.  The 
harder  forms  being  more  completely  broken 
up  in  the  mouth  are  the  more  digestible.  It  is 
probable  that  on  account  of  the  active  ferments 
present  a  small  quantity  of  cheese  taken  at  the 
end  of  a  meal  actually  assists  in  the  digestion  of 
the  food  already  taken  although  more  or  less 
difficult  of  digestion  itself. 

183.  FATS   AND   OILS.     All  fats    consist 
essentially   of  two   distinct   elements;  olein  and 
stearin.     The  former  consist  of  the  oily  part  that 
may  be  pressed  out  at  a  moderate  temperature, 
while  the  stearin  is  the  part  that  remains  and 
liquifies  only  at  a  relatively  high    temperature. 
Both  serve  important  but  entirely  different  pur- 
poses  in   the   preparation   of   the   various   com- 
pounds put  on  the  market  as  substitutes  for  lard 
and  butter. 

184.  The    olein    and    stearin    are    separated 
from  suet  and  beef  fat  as  follows:     The  fat  is 
melted  and  allowed  to  cool.     Crystals  of  stearin 
quickly  form  and  the  fat  is  spread  in  flat,  rectangu- 
lar slabs  and  wrapped  in  a  cheese  cloth  of  fine 
quality.     These  slabs  are  stacked  in  a  pile  several 


MILK,    CHEESE,    LARD,    ETC.  105 

layers  high  and  gradually  subjected  to  great 
pressure.  The  oil  (olein)  oozes  out,  and  finally 
the  stearin  is  left  in  light,  cream  colored  waxlike 
cakes  that  are  brittle  and  easily  broken  in  the 
fingers. 

185.  The  oil  thus  extracted  retains  its  liquid 
form  at  a  moderate  temperature  and  may  be  used 
for  illuminating  or  lubricating  purposes;  or,   it 
may  be  used  in  the  various  lard  or  butter  com- 
pounds  put   up   by   the   packing   houses.     The 
stearin  melts  only  at  a  relatively  high  tempera- 
ture, thus  giving  body  to  the  fat,  lard,  tallow,  etc., 
the  quantity  present  determining  the  consistency 
of   the  article.     By  ingenious  combinations  ad- 
vantage is  taken  of  the  properties  mentioned  and 
lard  and  butter  compounds  are  manufactured  to 
meet  the  various  demands  of  climate  and  season. 

186.  Beef  fat  has  a  higher  melting  point  than 
lard,  and  beef  stearin  than  lard  stearin.     In  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  butter,  we  find  the  beef 
stearin  combined  with  neutral  lard,  and  the  lard 
stearin  with  oleo  oil,  which  is  the  oil  pressed  from 
beef  fat. 

187.  Tallow  is   simply  beef   or  mutton  fat 
rendered  at  a  very  high  temperature  to  give  a 
higher  melting  point. 


106       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

188.  OLIVE   OIL  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant  of  edible  oils,   both   on  account  of  its 
abundance  and  palatability,  and  it  would  be  more 
commonly  used  in  ordinary  cooking  except  for 
the  cost.     It  has  been  used  since  the  earliest  his- 
torical times  and  was  probably  one  of  the  first 
vegetable  oils  manufactured.     By  reason  of  its 
great  value  and  high  price  it  has  been  subject  to 
systematic  and  extensive  adulteration.     Nearly 
all  of  the  edible  oils  have  the  light  amber  tint 
that  is  characteristic  of  many  grades  of  olive  oil, 
and  if  mixed  with  them  to  such  an  extent  that  not 
more  than  30  per  cent,  of  the  olive  oil  remains, 
the  detection  of  adulteration  may  be  extremely 
difficult. 

189.  COTTONSEED    OIL   stands   next   to 
olive  oil  in  importance  as  an  edible  oil.     The  im- 
mense quantity  consumed  can  be  best  appreciated 
by  the  fact  that  for  every  pound  of  cotton  fiber 
grown  there  are  two  pounds  of  seed  available  for 
making  oil,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  is  used  for 
edible  purposes. 

190.  The  oil  was  formerly  objected  to  on 
account  of  the  disagreeable  odor  given  off  in 


MILK,  CHEESE,  LARD,  ETC.  107 

cooking,  and  for  a  bad  flavor  in  the  article  cooked. 
Within  the  past  few  years  these  objections  have 
been  removed,  and  now  an  oil  is  placed  on  the 
market  that  is  practically  odorless  and  tasteless, 
and  immense  quantities  are  used  in  cooking  and 
baking. 

191.  As  in  animal  fats,  there  is  a  large  por- 
tion called  stearin,  that  melts  at  only  relatively 
high  temperatures,  advantage  of  which  is  taken 
in  producing  oil  for  summer  or  winter  use.     In 
the  former  the  stearin  is  left  in  the  oil    which 
will  retain  its  liquid  condition  during  the  warm 
summer  months;  but  for  winter  use,  the  oil  is 
chilled  and  the  stearin  separated  by  filtration. 
The  oil  remaining  retains  its  liquid  form  at  rela- 
tively low  temperatures. 

192.  BUTTER.     As  defined  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,   butter  is  a  food  product 
made  exclusively  from  milk  or  cream  or  both, 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  common  salt,  and 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  coloring  matter. 
It  is  the  most  easily  digested  of  all  fatty  foods. 
The   cream   from   which   it   is   derived   consists 
essentially  of  the  fat  of  milk  although  other  sub- 
stances (water,  sugar,  etc.)  are  present  in  con- 


108       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

siderable  quantities.  The  globules  of  fat  consti- 
tuting the  cream  are  lighter  than  the  milk  and  are 
separated  from  it  either  by  allowing  it  to  rise  to 
the  surface,  or  by  means  of  a  separator  in  which 
the  separation  is  made  by  centrifugal  force.  In 
the  latter  the  cream  comes  to  the  center  and  is 
allowed  to  flow  off  in  tanks  provided. 

193.  If    desease    germs    are    suspected,    the 
cream  may  be  pasteurized  before  churning   (by 
subjecting  it  to  a  temperature  of  about  158  de- 
grees F'ahr.,  for  about  30  minutes)  but  butter 
made  from  such  cream  is  devoid  of  natural  flavor. 

194.  Ladled  Butter  is  made  by  remixing  and 
reworking  different  lots  of  butter  without  melting, 
so  as  to  secure  a  uniform  grade. 

195.  Canned    Butter    is    ordinarily    put    up 
when  perfectly  fresh  in  cans  weighing  from  y£  to 
3  pounds.     The  cans  are  completely  filled  and  her- 
metically sealed.     In  this  condition  it  will  retain 
its  good  quality  for  several  months.     It  can  how- 
ever be  kept  indefinitely  by  melting,  boiling  to 
drive  off  the  water,  straining  to  remove  the  casein 
and  sealing  hermetically  as  before. 

196.  Renovated    Butter    is    of    two    distinct 
classes : 


MILK,  CHEESE,  LARD,  ETC.  109 

(a)  The  product  obtained  by  melting  to- 
gether and  refining  several  different  grades  or 
lots  of  different  color  without  the  addition  of  any 
foreign  matter,  the  object  being  to  secure  a  high 
grade  uniform  product. 

(5)  Reworked  butter  that  has  been  impaired 
in  quality  and  has  been  subjected  to  melting  or 
other  renovating  process. 

197.  Oleomargarin   is   the   term   applied   by 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  all  butter  sub- 
stitutes placed  on  the  market  regardless  of  their 
composition.     In  its  manufacture  the  oil  is  churned 
with   a   certain  amount   of  milk,   or   cream,    or 
with  both  or  with  creamery  butter,  in  order  to 
secure  the  desired  flavor.     The  amount  of  stearin 
added  is  determined  by  the  climate  in  which  the 
butter  is  to  be  used  or  by  season  of  the  year. 

198.  LARD.     Lard  is  defined  as  the  fat  of 
swine.     From  the  several  parts   of  the  carcass 
distinct  grades  are  obtained,  differing  slightly  in 
chemical  composition  and  ability  to  withstand 
heat  without  passing  into  a  liquid  form.     Thus 
the  part  that  forms  in  large  leaves,  and  lines  the 
back  of  the  hog,  and  is  called  "Leaf  Lard,"  is  the 


110      THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

best  and  most  expensive.  The  intestinal  lard, 
found  within  the  abdomen  and  attached  to  the 
intestines,  is  also  a  very  high  grade  of  lard.  The 
"Back  Fat"  is  next  and  constitutes  the  greater 
part  of  the  lard  placed  on  the  market.  "Silver 
Leaf  Brand"  and  "Shield  Brand"  are  among  the 
names  under  which  it  is  sold,  although  these 
brands  contain  no  "leaf  lard"  at  all.  Lower 
grades  are  found  in  the  feet  and  other  parts  of  the 
hog,  but  this  is  not  rendered  into  cooking  lard.  In 
the  packing  houses,  the  fat  of  diseased  hogs  that 
die  in  human  food  is  rendered  into  scap  grease, 
lubricating  oils,  fertilizers,  etc. 

199.  The  proportion  of  stearin  in  lard  deter- 
mines   its    melting    point.     Lard    with    a    high 
melting  point  is  specially  desired  for  summer  use, 
and  that  with  a  low  melting  point  for  cold  climates 
and   for   winter   use.      The   melting   point   may 
be    regulated    by    increasing    or    reducing    the 
amount  of  stearin  used,  though  any  change  in  the 
natural  proportion  must  be  considered  as  an  adult- 
eration. 

200.  Neutral  Lard  is  made  from  the  "leaf 
lard,"  being  that  portion  that  is  rendered  at  a 
relatively  low  temperature,  so  that  it  may  be  en- 
tirely free  from  a  steam  taste.     It  is  practically 


MILK,  CHEESE,  LARD,  ETC.  Ill 

free  from  moisture  and  acids  and  hence  its  name. 
It  is  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  oleo- 
margarin  of  the  best  quality. 

201.  Leaf  Lard  consists  properly  of  all  the 
lard  from  the  leaf,  but  there  is  relatively  little  of 
this  placed  on  the  market.     It  demands  a  high 
price  and  few  can  afford  to  use  it. 

202.  Noodle   Lard   is    made    from    the    hog 
backs.     The  lard  is  ground  and  rendered  at  a  low 
temperature  and  used  in  the  manufacture  cf  arti- 
ficial butter. 

203.  Prime  Steam  Lard  is   made   from  fat 
from  all  parts  of  the  carcass  and  rendered  by  the 
application  of  live  steam.     It  practically  repre- 
sents the  average  fat  from  the  whole  animal. 

204.  Kettle  Rendered  Lard  consists  of  part 
leaf  lard  and  back  fat  only  and  as  a  rule  is  a  higher 
grade  than  the  steam  rendered  lard.     The  two 
grades — Prime  Steam  Lard  and  Kettle  Rendered 
Lard — constitute  the  greater  portion  of  the  pure 
lard  placed  on  the  market. 

205.  Adulteration.     Beef    fat    has    a    higher 
melting  point  than  lard,  and  cotton  seed  oil  a 
much  lower  and  by  a  happy  combination  a  com- 
pound containing  no  lard  at  all  can  be  formed 


112       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

having  the  same  melting  point  as  any  grade  of 
lard.  The  principal  adulteration  to  which  lard 
has  been  subjected  has  been  by  the  addition  of 
such  a  compound  of  the  same  melting  point.  The 
law  now  forbids  its  sale  on  the  market  as  lard,  or 
without  giving  its  composition. 

206.  The    Lard     Compounds     consist     very 
largely  of  cottonseed  oil  to  which  stearin  is  added 
to  give  a  body  and  to  raise  the  melting  point. 
Some  of  these  compounds  contain  as  high  as  75 
per  cent,  of  cotton  seed  oil  and  25  per  cent,  of 
stearin,  and  are  placed  on  the  market  at  a  lower 
price,    furnishing   an   excellent    substitute   at    a 
reasonable  price.     For  some  purposes  these  sub- 
stitutes are  almost  as  good  as  pure  lard,  but  in 
pastries  about  one-fifth  more  has  to  be  used  to 
secure  the  same  result,  and  for  this  reason,  econ- 
omy does  not  always  result  from  its  use. 

207.  The   Objections   raised    to    the   use    of 
artificial  butter  and  the  so-called  lard  compounds 
are  more  on  the  grounds  of  fraud  and  deception 
than   of  nutritive  value.     The   compounds   are 
wholesome  and  digestible.     Artificial  butter  differs 
from    creamery   butter   principally   by   the   ab- 
sence of  certain  acids.     In  the  lard  compounds 


MILK,  CHEESE,  LARD,  ETC.  113 

a  pure  vegetable  oil  has  been  substituted  (at  least 
in  part)  for  the  animal  oil  which  has  been  re- 
moved. 

208.  Practically  all  fats  are  the  same  and 
do  the  same  work  in  the  system,  though  their 
flavor  and  appearance  have  much  to  do  with  our 
estimation  of  their  value  as  foods.     We  cannot 
consistently  object  to  the  use  of  artificial  butter 
on  the  ground  that  it  contains  animal  fat,  for  we 
eat  quantities  of  that  every  day.     The  objection 
naturally  arises  from  doubt  as  to  cleanliness  in 
manufacture  and  as  to  the  actual  composition. 

209.  A  personal  inspection  of  the  packing 
house  methods  of  today  would  satisfy  the  most 
skeptical  that  artificial  butter  is  made  from  clean 
animal  fats  and  that  it  is  put  up  under  far  more 
sanitary  conditions  than  generally  exist  in  the 
country  dairy  or  in  the  creamery.     In  addition, 
the   danger   from   tubercular   germs   which   are 
known  to  frequently  exist  in  butter  is  practically 
done  away  with. 

211.  The  cheapness  and  excellent  quality  of 
artificial  butter  found  on  the  market  recommends 
its  use  in  the  company  kitchen,  though  the  tax  of 
10  cents  per  pound  imposed  on  that  which  is 
colored  should  exclude  that  particular  article. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD  —  BACTERIA 
AND  MOLD. 

BACTERIA. 

212.  General  Remarks.  It  may  be  said  that 
the  deterioration  cf  foods  through  puterfaction, 
decay,  souring,  etc.,  is  due  to  the  growth  of 
bacteria*  and  that  preservation  requires  conditions 
unfavorable  to  such  growth.  Thus,  a  certain 
amount  of  moisture — 35  per  cent,  to  40  per  cent. 
— is  required  for  the  growth  of  bacteria,  and 
generally  the  lower  the  temperature  until  the 
freezing  point  is  reached,  the  slower  will  such 
growth  take  place.  Hence  dryness  and  cold  re- 

*Bacteria,  yeasts  and  molds  comprise  a  series  of  plants 
commonly  known  as  micro-organisms,  or  more  popularly  as 
microbes.  The  general  rotting  of  fruit,  decay  of  meat,  souring 
of  milk,  and  similar  phenomena  are  incident  to  the  growth  of 
such  plants.  Molds  are  fungi  of  considerable  size,  easily 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  and  of  thread-like  formation.  Yeasts 
develop  by  a  process  of  budding,  each  little  cell  being  said  to 
reproduce  itself  every  three  or  four  hours.  Bacteria  are 
smaller  plants  that  multiply  by  a  process  of  splitting  into 
rod-like  or  spiral  bodies. 

114 


PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS.  115 

tard  decay,  but  absolute  prevention  of  deteriora- 
tion requires  that  all  bacteria  present  be  killed 
and  that  others  be  prevented  from  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  food.  To  kill  the  bacteria  requires 
a  sufficiently  high  temperature  to  materially  alter 
the  flavor  of  the  food,  or  even  cook  it,  and  germs 
cannot  readily  be  killed  in  any  otherway  without 
spoiling  the  food. 

As  bacteria  are  found  everywhere  in  the  air, 
water,  or  earth,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  keep  them 
from  food,  even  after  they  have  been  gotten  rid 
of.  It  thus  appears  that  freshly  cooked  food  in 
general  is  apt  to  be  freer  from  bacteria  than  food 
that  has  not  been  cooked,  or  that  has  not  been 
properly  portected  if  "left  over"  for  some  subse- 
quent meal. 

213.  Presence  of  bacteria  not  always  un- 
desirable. Comparatively  few  bacteria  are  harm- 
ful and  some  are  not  even  undesirable.  For 
instance,  alcohol  and  vinegar  are  direct  results 
of  bacterial  growth,  while  the  flavors  of  butter 
and  cheese  are  largely  due  to  the  growth  of  bac- 
teria. Sauerkraut  is  a  wholesome  food  which  de- 
rives its  characteristic  flavor  from  partial  de- 
composition of  the  cabbage  incident  to  fermenta- 
tion during  the  process  of  curing.  The  souring 


116       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

of  milk  is  a  natural  process  due  to  the  growth  of 
certain  germs  in  the  milk  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  wholesomeness  of  the  milk  is  thereby 
impaired,  though  it  becomes  less  palatable.  If 
not  permitted  to  sour,  certain  putrefactive  changes 
would  soon  take  place,  producing  a  more  or  less 
dangerous  product.  However,  it  is  generally 
desirable  to  retard  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  order 
to  preserve  our  food  products  from  decay  and 
this  can  be  done  in  various  ways. 

214.  Drying.  It  has  already  been  noted 
that  a  considerable  amount  of  moisture  is  neces- 
sary for  bacterial  growth  (Par.  212);  hence  the 
absence  of  moisture  will  check  it.  For  example, 
in  nature,  grains  dry  out  and  are  thus  preserved 
as  seed  for  the  subsequent  year,  and  incidentally 
flour  containing  moisture  to  the  extent  ordinarily 
found  in  wheat  is  free  from  bacterial  growth. 
Meats  stripped  from  carcasses  of  slaughtered 
animals  and  dried  in  the  sun  will  keep  for  almost 
indefinite  periods.  Fruits  dried  in  the  sun,  or  by 
artificial  means,  are  free  from  decay  so  long  as 
they  are  kept  dry.  Crackers,  which  contain 
practically  no  moisture,  keep  indefinitely  so  long 
as  they  are  perfectly  dry;  while  fresh  bread, 
which  contains  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  will 


PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS.  117 

spoil  in  days,  or  weeks,  depending  upon  the 
amount  of  moisture  contained  in  it,  and  in  the 
atmosphere  where  stored.  Dried  or  toasted 
bread  crumbs  keep  indefinitely  in  a  perfectly  dry 
atmosphere,  if  protected  from  mice  and  insects. 
They  should  be  suspended  in  a  clean  flour  sack 
until  used.  The  preparation  of  milk  for  preser- 
vation for  indefinite  periods  is  a  powdered  con- 
dition, and  the  desiccation  of  eggs  are  growing 
industries. 

Fresh  Meat  hung  in  a  moderately  cool  dry 
place — say  60  degrees  Fahr. — will  keep  longer 
than  in  a  damp  ice  box  at  50  or  even  40  degrees 
Fahr.,  a  fact  that  can  frequently  be  put  to  use  in 
company  kitchens.  At  the  Training  School,  meat 
is  seldom  hung  in  an  ice  box,  even  in  summer,  but 
is  protected  from  flies  by  cloths,  and  hung  in  a 
moderately  cool  place,  in  a  draught  if  practicable. 

Dried  fish,  ham,  bacon,  dried  beef,  etc.,  are 
samples  of  meats  preserved  by  dry  ness,  though 
the  brine  in  which  they  may  have  been  cured,  the 
smoke  from  burning  wood,  and  additional  salt 
have  all  assisted  in  their  preservation. 

Most  vegetables  and  fruits  are  now  preserved 
by  desiccating  either  by  the  application  of  heat, 
which  drives  off  the  volatile  oils,  that  give 


118       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

fruits  their  peculiar  flavor,  or  by  a  more  recent 
process  of  passing  air  from  which  moisture  has 
been  extracted,  over  the  surface  cf  the  same.  It 
is  claimed  for  this  latter  process  that  the  natural 
flavors  are  retained,  and  actual  experience  has 
shown  it  to  be  the  case  in  many  vegetables  and 
fruits. 

215.  Cold  Storage.     As   bacterial   growth   is 
checked  by  low  temperatures,  cold  storage  affords 
a    ready   means    of    temporary    preservation    of 
foods  for  periods  depending  upon  the  tempera- 
ture used.     Generally,  however,  all  products  that 
have  been  long  in  cold  storage  quickly  deteriorate 
when  removed  therefrom  and  hence  should  be 
consumed  as  soon  thereafter  as  practicable.     In 
the  Artie  regions  steaks  from  the  mammoth  thous- 
ands of  years  in  the  ice  are  said  to  have  been 
eaten  with  relish.     As  a  rule,  beef,  is  "aged"  at 
temperatures  somewhat  above  freezing,  for  weeks 
before  it  is  considered  to  be  of  sufficiently  fine 
flavor  for  high  class  trade. 

216.  Storing   in   Pits.     Should   it   be   desir- 
able to  keep  apples  or  vegetables  far  into  the 
winter  and  suitable  cold  storage  is  not  available, 
excellent  results  may  be  secured  by  covering  such 


PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS.  119 

products  in  the  earth.  Dig  pits  of  suitable  size — 
say  three  feet  deep  and  about  four  feet  wide 
and  of  a  length  required  for  the  quantity  to  be 
stored.  Let  the  ground  chill  thoroughly  close  to 
the  freezing  point,  and  meanwhile  keep  the 
apples,  etc.,  in  the  vicinity  covered  with  hay. 
While  the  temperature  is  nearly  down  to  freezing, 
line  the  pit  with  hay  and  carefully  lay  away  the 
apples,  etc.,  without  bruising,  and  gradually  cover 
with  hay  as  the  weather  gets  colder.  Finally, 
lay  boards  or  timbers  over  the  pit  and  cover  well 
with  hay  and  earth,  leaving  a  small  flue  for  venti- 
lation. If  cared  for  in  this  manner,  apples,  cab- 
bage, etc.,  can  be  kept  for  several  months  with 
but  slight  loss. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  other 
vegetables  than  sweet  potatoes  for  long  periods, 
in  the  steam  heated  basements  of  modern  bar- 
racks. Sweet  potatoes  keep  best  at  a  temper- 
ature of  70  degrees  Fahr.,  and  should  be  covered 
with  sand  if  practicable. 

217.  Other  means  for  preserving  food  pro- 
ducts. A  cool,  dry  cellar  comes  next  to  cold 
storage.  Its  value,  however,  depends  upon  uni- 
form temperature  and  a  dry  atmosphere.  Un- 


120       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

slacked  lime  may  have  to  be  resorted  to  to  pre- 
serve dryness,  and  ventilation  is  always  a  neces- 
sity. 

The  fireles  cooker  principle  can  often  be  re- 
sorted to  for  the  preservation  of  foods  that  have 
already  „  been  chilled.  Compressed  yeast  (not 
dried,  but  well  chilled)  have  been  kept  for  nine 
days  in  excellent  condition,  simply  by  wrapping 
in  a  number  of  layers  of  coarse  paper,  and  then 
setting  in  a  temperature  of  70  to  90  degrees  Fahr. 
Moist  sacks  placed  around  receptacles  contain- 
ing food,  or  solid  damp  earth  packed  about  the 
same,  cold  springs,  etc.,  have  often  been  resorted 
to  for  the  preservation  of  milk,  butter,  eggs,  etc. 

218.  Chemical  Preservatives.  Before  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Pure  Food  and  Drug  Act,  many 
"preservatives"  were  used  to  prevent  bacterial 
growth.  Such,  for  instance,  were  borax,  ben- 
zoic  acid,  salicylic  acid,  and  formalin,  and  while 
acting  as  antiseptics,  were  practically  harmless 
so  long  as  taken  in  small  quantities.  They  were 
sold  under  the  head  of  preservatives,  antifer- 
mentine,  freezine,  etc.,  and  were  frequently  used 
in  the  home.  The  principal  difficulty  seems  to 
have  been  to  determine  how  many  parties  had 


PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS.  121 

added  the  preservative  as  it  passed  from  the 
manufacturer,  through  dealers,  to  the  consumer. 
Due  to  the  Pure  Food  Law  making  the  use  of 
such  preservatives  illegal,  the  food  on  our  market 
is  now  practically  free  from  them,  although 
benzoic  acid  is  still  allowed  in  certain  foods. 

219.  Non-Poisonous  Preservatives .  Some  ma- 
terials in  common  use  for  preserving  purposes  are 
not  only  harmless,  but  actually  beneficial. 

(a)  Sugar  has  an  exceedingly  high  nutritive 
value  and  is  a  natural  preservative  when  used  in 
sufficient  quantities,  i.  e.,  in  quantities  frequently 
as  high  as  40  to  50  per  cent.     Its  use  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  jellies,  preserves,  marmalades,  etc.,  is 
almost  universal.     Fresh  fish  is  sometimes  rubbed 
with  sugar,  and  condensed  milk  is  preserved  by 
the  addition  of  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  it.     Raisins, 
figs,   currants  and  prunes  are  preserved  partly 
with  sugar,  and  partly  through  drying  out. 

The  spread  of  the  canning  industry  has 
however,  reduced  the  use  of  sugar  to  a  consider- 
able extent. 

(b)  Salt  is  the  most  common  form  of  harm- 
less preservatives.     Its  use  in  connection  with 


122       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

fish,  fat  pork,  beef,  etc.,  is  well  known.  With 
sugar  and  saltpetre,  it  is  frequently  used  in  a 
brine  for  corning  meats,  or  curing  them  prepara- 
tory to  other  processes  necessary  in  preparing 
them  for  the  market.  Salt  is  used  to  preserve  as 
well  as  to  flavor  butter  and  cheese,  and  the  latter 
is  frequently  rubbed  with  it  to  prevent  bacterial 
growth. 

(c)  Vinegar  is  commonly  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion and  preservation  of  all  kinds  of  pickles  and  in 
certain    sausages    and   mince    meats,    etc.     The 
acids  formed  in  the  souring  of  cabbage  out  of 
which  sauerkraut  is  made  preserves  that  product 
from  the  action  of  undesirable  bacteria. 

(d)  Spices   are  recognized  as  more   or  less 
efficient    as    antiseptics.      The   preservation   of 
mincemeat,  sausage,  salads,  etc.,  is  largely  due 
to  their  presence,  although  they  also  add  a  desir- 
able flavor.     Such  mixtures  are,  however,  made 
most  frequently  in  cold  weather,  when  deteriora- 
tion is  more  easily  prevented. 

220.  Canning.  By  the  above  simple  methods 
of  preservation,  foods  lose  their  characteristic 
flavors;  frequently  they  become  much  less  di- 
gestible, and  as  a  rule  deterioration  is  only 


PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS.  123 

delayed.  The  only  way  of  securing  perfect  pre- 
servation is  by  killing  all  the  bacteria  present 
(and  they  are  always  present  in  raw  foods),  and 
then  absolutely  preventing  their  re-entrance.  The 
first  requirement  is  accomplished  satisfactorily 
in  many  foods  by  boiling  for  certain  periods, 
sometimes  under  pressure  to  produce  such  higher 
temperature  as  has  been  found  necessary  from  ex- 
perience. Thus,  most  fruits  and  vegetables,  cer- 
tain kinds  of  fish,  and  some  sea  foods  are  among 
the  products  that  can  be  actually  cooked  to  ad- 
vantage for  the  purpose  of  preservation;  but 
other  foods,  as  raisins,  currants,  some  cured 
meats,  and  cereals  that  are  easily  dried  can 
neither  be  satisfactorily  nor  economically  handled 
in  this  manner. 

Having  gotten  rid  of  the  bacteria,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  them  out  by  hermetically  sealing  the 
receptacle  in  which  the  food  is  placed.  In  the 
case  of  jellies,  melted  paraffin  is  generally  poured 
over  the  surface;  in  the  household,  glass  jars  with 
suitable  tops  and  rubber  bands,  are  used  to  ad- 
vantage, although  frequently  the  rubbers  and 
covers  are  not  sufficiently  sterilized  and  serve  to 
re-introduce  bacteria.  In  the  laboratory  and 


124       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

sometimes  in  the  household  small  amounts  of  food 
are  placed  in  glass  bottles  or  small  jars  with  mouths 
stopped  with  cotton,  which  is  said  to  actually 
prevent  the  entrance  of  bacteria. 

-For  the  general  trade,  however,  sealing  in 
tin  cans  is  resorted  to  almost  to  an  incredible  ex- 
tent, and  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the 
food  hermetically  sealed  in  them  should  not  keep 
indefinitely.  Generally,  after  the  cans  are  filled 
and  sealed,  a  puncture  is  made  for  the  escape  of 
steam  when  the  cans  are  reheated.  A  drop  of 
solder  then  closes  the  hole  and  frequently  this 
work  is  done  in  a  vacuum,  in  order  that  the  air 
may  be  effectively  withdrawn  from  the  can  before 
closing. 

MOLDS. 

221.  General  Remarks.  Molds  develop  from 
spores  found  floating  about  in  the  air.  These 
spores  are  slightly  heavier  than  air,  and  gradually 
settle  to  the  floor  or  light  upon  objects  such  as 
exposed  foods,  damp  boards,  leather  goods,  etc., 
where,  according  to  the  species,  of  which  there 
are  many,  coarse  or  fine  thread-like  growths  of 
various  colors  develop.  Sweeping,  dusting,  or 


PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS.  125 

simply  passing  through  a  room  stirs  up  mold 
spores  that  have  settled  to  rest,  but  the  simple 
covering  of  food  is  frequently  sufficient  protection 
from  them,  though  this  would  not  protect  from 
bacteria.  The  latter,  however,  require  much 
moisture  for  their  growth,  while  molds  develop 
where  but  a  small  percentage  may  be  present. 

222.  Jelly,    in   which   the  spores  have  been 
killed,  is  protected  from  mold  by  pouring  melted 
paraffin  over  the  top.     In  cooling,  it  effectually 
seals  the  surface  against  exposure  to^the  air.     A 
little  alcohol,  brandy,  or  white,  of  eggs  might  be 
used  in  place  of  the  paraffin,  with  a  clean  piece 
of  paper  cut  to  fit  the  glass  pressed  down  upon  the 
surface  of  the  jelly. 

223.  Sausage,  packed  in  a  jar  is  frequently 
sealed  by  pouring  melted  lard  over  the  surface. 
It  forms  a  solid  cake  and  prevents  the  entrance  of 
molds.     Even  after  such  precautions,   however, 
food  should  be  set  in  a  dry  place,  as  absolute 
sealing  is  difficult,  and  mold  will  not  develop  where 
it  is  dry. 

224.  Canned  Goods  that  have  been  opened 
exposed  to  the  air  will  surely  mold  in  a  few 


126       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

days  at  most  if  subjected  to  conditions  favorable 
to  such  growth.  Boiling  and  resealing  alone  will 
again  prevent  them  from  spoiling. 

225.  Almost  any  foods  found  in  our  store- 
rooms are  subject  to  the  growth  of  molds.     Even 
pickles  will  support  such  growth,  though  the  acid 
present  would  generally  prevent  the  development 
of  bacteria.     Molds  feed  upon  rich  foods,  and  will 
not   develop   where   minerals   only   are   present. 
Their  growth,  however,  may  be  luxuriant  upon 
any  vegetable  product  such  as  stumps,  planks, 
and  stalks  of  grain.     In  fact,  the  musty  smell  of 
hay,  grain,  or  of  the  air  in  a  close,  damp  room, 
is  due  to  the  growth  of  some  species  of  mold. 

226.  Effect  of  Mold  Growth.     The  presence 
of  mold  causes  food  to  become  unsightly.     The 
flavor  is  impaired  or  ruined  and  a  musty  odor  is 
frequently  present.     After  much  growth  of  mold 
the  decay  of  food  takes  place  on  account  of  changes 
incident   to  its   growth.      Incidentally,   bacteria 
growth  is  more  than  likely  to  have  set  up  and  in 
part  caused  the  deterioration  of  the  food. 

227.  Mold  Not  Unwholesome,     Mold  is  not 


PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS.  127 

considered  as  necessarily  unwholesome,  in  itself 
in  fact  certain  kinds  of  cheese,  as  Roquefort 
derive  much  of  their  flavor  from  the  mold  present. 
If  consumed  in  large  quantity,  slightly  poisionous 
effects  may  be  produced.  Molds  not  being  neces- 
sarily unhealthful,  foods  in  which  they  appear 
need  not  become  a  total  loss,  but  the  mold  may 
be  cut  from  portions  of  the  ham,  bacon,  cheese, 
bread,  fruits,  etc.,  upon  which  it  appears. 

228.  Effect  of  Moisture.     Molds  develop  best 
in  close,  dark  and  slightly  moist  atmosphere,  with 
a    temperature    anywhere    between    40    to    100 
degrees  Fahr.,  different  species  growing  best  at 
different  temperatures. 

229.  •  Mold    develops    best    in    cozy    corners 
and  close  atmosphere,  and  hence   where   single 
pieces  of  bread  or  fruit,  stored  on  a  shelf,  re- 
main free  from  mold,  a  stack  of  bread,  or  a  platter 
of  fruit,  will  mold  with  facility.     Many  materials 
contain  sufficient  moisture  within  themselves  to 
support  the  growth  of  molds,  should  the  germs 
gain    entrance;  hence,    precautions    against    the 
molding  of  such  foods  may  simple  retard  their 
growth. 


128       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Mold  starting  in  a  barrel  of  apples  quickly 
goes  through  the  entire  lot,  or  if  a  start  is  made 
in  a  bin  of  vegetables,  the  mold  will  quickly 
spread  to  all  parts;  hence,  in  storing  they  should 
be  separated  if  practicable  by  papers,  or  sawdust, 
or  divided  into  small  lots. 

230.  From  the  principles  applied,  it  will  be 
seen  that  mold  can  be  effectulaly  prevented  only 
by   placing  food   in   dry   atmosphere   and   if   the 
room  be  light  and  well  ventilated,  so  much  the 
better. 

Remember,  however,  that  foods  just  removed 
from  cold  storage  quickly  condense  moisture 
over  their  surfaces  and  for  this  reason  may  mold 
when  similar  articles  that  have  not  been  chilled 
will  not. 

231.  Mold  may  be  prevented  from  spreading 
by  wiping  the  individual  articles  such  as  apples, 
oranges,  lemons,  etc.,  as  dry  as  possible,  wrapping 
in  dry  paper,  which  of  itself  will  absorb  more 
mositure  from  the  surface  of  the  fruit,  and  then 
placing  in  a  moderately  dry  atmosphere. 

Almost  all  objects  resulting  from  organic 
growth,  such  as  cloth,  and  leather  goods,  as  well 


PRESERVATION  OF  FOODS.  129 

as  food  products,  are  subject  to  molding,  and 
the  only  effectual  remedy  is  storage  in  a  dry 
place. 

Especially  in  the  tropics  can  .much  food  and 
property  be  protected  from  mold  by  carefully 
wrapping  in  dry  paper  or  storage  in  dry  paper 
sacks. 


•  CHAPTER  VII. 

BRIEF  EXTRACTS  FROM  LECTURES  BY 
THE  AUTHOR. 

232.  *  *  *    The  efficiency  of  an  organiza- 
tion commander  is  measured  as  well  by  the  intel- 
ligent supervision  he  gives  to  the  messing  of  his 
men  as  by  any  other  standard.  *  *  *  * 

233.  *  *  *  In  the  regular  service,  you  will 
generally  find  the  best  men  where  you  find  the 
best  mess.  *  *  *  * 

234.  *  *  *  You  can  demand  almost  anything 
from  a  well-fed  organization,  and  your  orders  will 
be  cheerfully  obeyed.     Mental  condition  is  largely 
regulated  by  the  stomach.  *  *  *  * 

235.  *  *  *  Remember  that  wars  are  waged 
by  youths  still  in  their  teens,  and  not  by  bearded 
men,  as  is  frequently  painted  by  the  masters  of 
art.     Our  Civil  War  was  fought  by  boys  averaging 

130 


EXTRACTS  FROM  LECTURES.  131 

less  than  eighteen  years — an  age  at  which  a  well- 
balanced,  well-prepared  and  liberal  diet  is  still  of 
special  importance^  *  *  *  * 

236.  *  *  *  As  a  rule,  good  mess  officers  are 
not  born;  they  develop  by  study  and  experience. 
No  officer  will  be  successful  in  playing  this  role 
unless  he  studies  this  part  of  his  duties  as  he 
would  his  tactics,  his  guard  duty,  or  his  firing 
regulation.   *  *  *  * 

237.  *  *  *  The  officer  in  charge  of  a  mess 
is  not  expected  to  usurp  the  duties  of  the  Mess 
Sergeant — whose  efficiency  is  generally  overesti- 
mated— but  he  should  establish  a  simple  system 
of  checking  the  mess  that  will  prevent  a  daily 
expenditure  of  supplies  greater  in  value  than  the 
daily  allowance.   *  *  *  * 

238.  *  *  *  The  mere  presence  of  the  mess 
officer  in  the  dining  room,  and  his  active  interest 
in  seeing  that  the  men  get  the  best  he  can  provide 
will  improve  the  average  mess  100  per  cent.     In 
any  case,  the  improvement  cannot  be  figured  in 
dollars  and  cents.  *  *  *  * 

239  *  *  *  the  value  of  food  when  served, 
depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  system  to  appro- 
priate it  to  the  needs  of  the  body  and  the  4,000 


132       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

and  more  heat  units  presumably  stored  up  in  the 
field  ration,  when  chemically  analyzed,  quickly 
dwindle  below  the  requisite  3,500  for  a  working 
man,  when  the  rations  are  damaged  in  transit, 
wasted  by  the  cooks,  or  are  so  poorly  prepared 
that  much  is  thrown  away  by  the  men  as  unfit  to 
eat;  or,  if  taken  into  the  system,  is  largely  re- 
jected by  the  natural  processes,  on  account  of  the 
improper  preparation  for  the  body's  assimila- 
tion. *  *  *  * 

240.  *  *  *  Refuse   is    that    portion    of   food 
which  cannot,  or  should  not,  be  taken,  or,  if  taken 
into  the  system,  is  not  readily  assimilated;  for 
example,  shells,  potato  skins,  and  bone  from  which 
all   the   juices   have   been   extracted.     Waste  is 
food  that  should  have  been  served  in  some  form 
and    consumed,    but    which    has    been    thrown 
away;  for  example,  portions  of  fat  trimmed  from 
fresh  or  cooked  meats,  slices  and  crumbs  of  bread 
not  taken  on  the  men's  plates,  fresh  bones,  etc. 
The  ration  is  ample  if  unnecessary  waste  is  pre- 
vented. *  *  *  * 

241.  *  *  *  Variety  in  bills   of  fare,    careful 
preparation  of  foods,  palatable  seasoning,  preven- 
tion of  waste,  and  good  dining-room  service  are 
the  requisite  factors  of  a  successful  mess.  *  *  *  * 


EXTRACTS  FROM  LECTURES.  133 

242.  *  *  *  The  present  cash  value  of  the 
garrison  ration,  i.  e.,  of  the  food  provided  for  one 
man  for  one  day,  is,  at  most  posts,  somewhat  less 
than  twenty-five  cents.  Many  people  think  it 
impossible  for  the  soldier  to  be  well  fed  on  this 
small  amount,  while  others  assume  that  he  lives 
on  hash  and  stews,  supplemented  by  purchases 
made  at  the  Exchange  from  his  own  pocket. 
Such  persons  have  not  considered  the  additional 
expenses  of  feeding  the  soldier  that  must  be 
taken  into  account.  For  the  sake  of  comparison 
with  the  cost  of  living  in  a  restaurant  in  civil 
life,  let  us  take  the  cash  value  (or  first  cost)  of 
the  soldier's  ration;  add  a  resonable  amount  to 
the  wholesale  price,  at  which  the  ration  was 
purchased,  add  the  cost  of  transportation  from 
the  place  of  purchase  to  the  Army  Post;  allow 
suitable  wages  for  the  cooks,  dish-washers,  waiters, 
cashier,  and  general  manager;  and  to  this  add 
the  cost  of  fuel,  lights,  rent,  breakage,  general 
upkeep  of  equipment;  and  then  a  suitable  profit 
for  the  business,  and  you  will  suddenly  find 
that  the  soldier's  mess  might  better  be  com- 
pared with  a  restaurant  where  the  charges  are 


134       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

about  75  or  80  cents  per  day,  or  at  least  $18.00 
to  $20.00  per  month  *  *  *  * 

243.  *  *  *  Though  savings,  as  such,  are  no 
longer  made  (See  Pars.  1—5,  Mess  Sergeant's 
Handbook)  the  history  of  their  development  and 
use  is  still  of  interest,  inasmuch  as.  the  cash  credit 
accruing  from  any  component  should,  in  general, 
be  used  for  the  purchase  of  other  articles  of  the 
same  class.  The  making  of  savings  sprang  up 
back  in  the  30's,  when  the  coffee  and  sugar  com- 
ponents were  substituted  for  the  liquor  then 
issued.  The  regulations  provided  that  when  the 
issue  of  coffee  and  sugar  was  not  actually  made, 
its  equivalent  in  money  should  be  paid.  The 
scope  of  the  savings  clause  gradually  spread  to 
other  articles,  until  1908,  when  a  saving  was  au- 
thorized on  all  of  the  components  of  the  ration. 
The  object  of  the  saving  has  not  generally  been 
well  understood  nor  appreciated ;  too  often,  it  has 
been  presumed  that  savings  were  made  only 
with  a  view  to  purchasing  luxuries  for  the  table, 
and  this  idea  seems  to  be  the  one  firmly  imbeded 
in  the  minds  of  many  of  our  Congressmen  who 
have  suggested  making  a  reduction  in  the  ration, 
inasmuch  as  the  quantities  authorized  seemed 


EXTRACTS  FROM  LECTURES.  135 

to  be  above  the  requirements  since  savings 
could  be  made  and  spent  for  luxuries.  Nothing 
could  be  farther  from  the  truth.  For  example, 
take  the  flour  ration:  Eighteen  ounces  is  the 
ration  of  bread  or  flour.  A  well  fed  organization 
will  not  generally  spend  more  than  from  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  of  the  cash  credit  accruing 
from  the  flour  component  for  bread,  and  hence 
the  accumulation  of  a  considerable  saving  on 
this  component  of  the  ration  should  result.  Now, 
our  records  at  the  Training  School  show  that 
almost  the  entire  saving  is  spent  for  flour,  and 
the  other  necessary  ingredients  with  which  to 
make  rolls,  buns,  coffee  cake,  batter  cakes,  des- 
serts, etc.,  and  that  the  net  saving — about  one- 
tenth —  is  insufficient  to  purchase  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  oatmeal  or  other  cereal,  served  for 
breakfast,  but  not  provided  as  a  part  of  the 
ration. 

Next  in  order  comes  the  meat  component. 
At  this  station,  we  make  an  enormous  saving  on 
beef,  fully  two-fifths  of  the  issue,  and  why?  Not 
to  buy  luxuries,  but  to  vary  the  monotony  of  a 
steady  beef  diet  by  providing  each  day  something 
different — sausage,  liver,  fish,  beef  hearts,  chicken, 
eggs,  macroni  and  cheese,  etc.,  none  of  which 


136       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

are  a  regular  issue.  (See  Par.  8,  Mess  Sergeant's 
Handbook).  Later  I  will  explain  the  handling 
of  this  component  in  detail  to  show  that  there  is 
economy  in  making  such  a  saving  and  spending 
it  to  provide  variety,  but  not  for  the  purchase  of 
luxuries  for  the  mess. 

In  the  same  manner,  we  may  go  on  with  the 
other  articles  of  the  ration,  and  show  that  a  sav- 
ing of  the  cash  credit  accruing  from  the  potato 
component  enables  us  to  purchase  cabbage,  tur- 
nips, carrots,  parsnips,  and  sweet  potatoes,  but 
that  if  such  a  saving  and  purchase  were  not 
made,  the  authorized  issue  of  the  components 
would  from  necessity  be  almost  entirely  con- 
sumed. The  same  may  be  said  of  the  dried 
fruit,  making  purchase  of  fresh  fruit  when  in 
season  and  reasonable ;  of  issue  beans,  purchasing 
lima  beans,  chili  beans,  dried  sweet  corn,  pease; 
of  coffee  to  purchase  cocoa,  or  lemon  for  use  with 
cold  tea;  of  seasonings  to  purchase  red  peppers, 
herbs,  etc.,  and  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  saving  on  any  component  is  used  to  purchase 
articles  of  the  same  class,-  but  here  and  there  a 
little  saving  for  general  purposes  is  made.  Where 
luxuries  are  provided,  it  is  generally  through  un- 
usual economy  that  has  been  exercised  and  good 


EXTRACTS  FROM  LECTURES.  137 

judgment  shown  in  purchasing  certain  delicacies 
at  moderate  prices. 

244.  *  *  *  Beef  is  the  most  important  and 
expensive  article  of  the  ration,  generally  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  its  value;  therefore,  a  saving 
creates  a  substantial  fund  upon  which  to  draw 
for  other  purchases;  while  an  over-draft  rapidly 
consumes    any    savings    or    money    allowance. 
On  the  other  hand,  flour  is  the  cheapest  com- 
ponent of  the  ration  (nutritive  value  and  general 
usefulness  considered)  and  the  more  of  it  used 
the  less  will  be  the  running  expense  of  the  mess. 
These    two    articles    (meat    and   bread)    always 
constitute  more  than  one-half  the  value  of  the 
ration  and  the  allowance  of  both  must  be  care- 
fully' checked  and  not  handled  by  irresponsible 
men.     It  is  noted  that  when  the  ration  is  drawn, 
the  lesser  part  (consisting  of  the  smaller  articles 
of    the    ration)    is    generally    carefully    checked 
by  the  mess  sergeant  or  company  commander, 
but   frequently   no   accurate   record   is   kept    in 
the  company  of  the  bread  and  meat  issued  from 
day  to  day.     We  are  still  penny  wise  and  pound 
foolish.   *  *  *  * 

245.  *  *  *  If  the  cooks  are  unfamiliar  with 


138       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

handling  the  ration,  do  not  allow  them  to  touch 
more  than  the  allowance  (as  determined  by  the 
cash  credit)  for  the  day,  for  if  they  do,  the  food 
will  be  wasted  and  the  command  will  go  hungry 
before  the  expiration  of  the  ration  period.  *  *  *  * 

245  *  *  *  Perishable  articles  must  be  care- 
fully preserved  and  frequently  must  be  consumed 
before  others,  in  order  to  prevent  deterioration 
and  loss.  *  *  *  * 

247.  Unnecessary  waste  must  be  prevented 
by  the  careful  prepartion  and  service  of  suit- 
able quantities  of  food.     Potatoes  must  be  peeled 
thin  or  not  at  all,  and  the  bread  served  in  thin 
slices  in  small  quantities  as  required.     Hundreds 
of  pounds  of  bread  were  formerly  wasted  each 
day  on  the  Army  Transports,  where  it  was  issued 
in    huge    chunks    instead    of    thin    slices.     Un- 
touched food  left  over  from  each  meal  must  not 
be  thrown  away,  but  should  be  carefully  preserved 
and  used  in  the  preparation  of  some  palatable 
dish  for  a  later  meal. 

248.  *  *  *  Gravy  boats  and  sirup  jugs  should 
not  have  their  contents  dripping  over  the  edges, 
and  on  the  floor,  nor  should  the  meat  and  vege- 


EXTRACTS  FROM  LECTURES.  139 

tables  be  simply  thrown  on  the  dishes  on  which 
they  are  served.  It  takes  but  a  moment  to  ar- 
range the  platters  of  food  attractively,  and  to 
wipe  off  the  edges  of  the  dishes  so  that  they 
may  be  set  on  the  table  in  an  appetizing  form. 
Soup  should  be  served  in  tureens  in  a  course  by 
itself,  with  croutons,  or  crackers,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  meal  should  not  be  brought  on 
until  the  first  course  is  finished.  *  *  *  * 

249.  When   soup   is    served,    coffee   or   tea 
need  not  be.     The  allowance  of  coffee  is  suffi- 
cient for  making  good  coffee  but  twice  daily,  i.  e., 
coffee  made  with  four  and  one-half  ounces  per 
gallon  of  water  and  one  pint  allowed  to  each  man. 
Tea  is  cheaper  than  coffee  and  less  harmful.     It 
is    coming    into    more    general    use.     One-half 
ounces  per  gallon  of  water  is  the  amount  required, 
and  it   should   not    "draw"   longer   than   eight 
minutes.     Cocoa  and  chocolate  may  be  served  oc- 
casionally, using  two  ounces  per  gallon,  but  they 
are  much  more  expensive  than  tea  or  coffffee.**** 

250.  *  *  *  The  person  best  qualified  to  pass 
judgment  upon  the  work  of  others  is  one  who 
can,   with  his  own  hands,   perform  that  work. 
An  officer  who  can  shoe  a  horse  can  criticise  the 


140       THE  MESS  OFFICERS'  ASSISTANT. 

work  of  a  horseshoer  better  than  one  who  has 
simply  observed  such  work.  If  he  can  make  good 
bread,  he  is  better  qualified  to  supervise  the  work 
of  bakeries  than  he  otherwise  would  be.  If  he 
understands  the  essential  principles  of  cooking, 
he  will  be  able  to.  render  valuable  assistance  to 
many  a  good  cook  who  falls  short  of  being  a 
chef  through  lack  of  just  such  technical  knowl- 
edge. *  *  *  * 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
DEFINITIONS. 

251.  AERATED    BREAD.      Bread   result- 
ing from  the  dough  into  which  carbonic  gas  is 
mechanically  introduced,   in  order  to   save  the 
starch,  which  is  otherwise  lost  as  a  result  of  yeast 
fermentation. 

252.  ALBUMEN.     The  transparent,  nitro- 
genous   substance    which    forms    the    chief   and 
characteristic  constituent  of  the  white  of  an  egg. 
Albumen  is  found  also  in  the  blood  and  in  all 
serous  fluids ;  also  in  many  animal  and  vegetable 
juices  and  solids. 

253.  ALLSPICE.      A    common    spice    (the 
berry  of  a  West  Indian  tree)  used  in  mince  meat, 
brown  cakes,  puddings,  soups,  game  entrees,  and 
gelatin  jellies.     Ground  or  whole,  it  is  used  in 
pickling  pigs'  feet,  tripe,  sweet  pickles,  etc.     It  is 
supposed  to  combine  the  flavor  of  cinnamon,  nut- 
megs, and  cloves ;  hence  the  name. 

141 


142       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

254.  AMBERGRIS.      Obtained    from    the 
sperm  whale.     Also  found  floating  in  large  cakes 
in  the  Indian  Ocean.     It  is  much  used  in  flavor- 

4 

ing  liquors,  and  in  perfumes. 

255.  ANILINE.      One    of    the    many    pro- 
ducts of  petroleum.     The  red  shades  are  harm- 
less, but  the  chemicals  used  in  making  the  blue, 
green,   yellow,   and   other   colors,   are   injurious. 
Much  used  in  highly  colored  confectionery. 

256.  ANISEED.      A    small    seed   used    for 
flavoring.     Resembles    caraway    seed    or    celery 
seed. 

257.  ANNATTO.     Obtained  from  a  tropi- 
cal tree.     Much  used  in  coloring  varnish,   silk, 
cheese  and  butter. 

258.  ARROW  ROOT.     The  starch  of  the 
root' of  a  West  Indian  plant.     It  is  very  similar 
to  sage  and  tapioca.     It  is  frequently  made  into 
a  gruel  for  the  sick,  but  is  little  used  in  the  com- 
pany.    So  called  from  the  reputed  use  of  it  by 
the  natives  to  heal  wounds  from  poisoned  arrows. 

259.  BAKING.     Cooking  in  a  dry  heat,  as 
in  a  closed  oven.     See  "Methods  of  Cooking." 


DEFINITIONS.  143 

260.  BAKING   POWDER.     A  mixture  of 
a  carbonate  of  soda  and  an  acid  re-agent   (as 
Cream  of  Tartar,  Phosphoric  Acid  or  some  form  of 
Alum)  together  with  a  small  quantity  of  starch 
or  other  material  to  keep  the  active  agents  better 
separated.     The   acid   and   the   carbonate   com- 
bine when  mixed  with  water,  liberating  carbonic 
acid  gas,  which,  in  rising,  forms  in  pockets  or 
cells  in  the  dough,  making  it  light  and  spongy. 
Cold  water  of  cold  milk  should  be  used  in  the 
mixture,  which  should  be  disturbed  as  little  as 
possible  after  the  baking  powder  has  been  added. 
The  dough  should  be  baked  as  soon  as  possible 
after  prepared,  or  it  should  be  set  in  a  cool  place 
until  the  oven  is  ready.     The  objection  to  the  use 
of  baking  powder  is  that,  as  a  result  of  the  chemi- 
cal reaction,  certain  solids  are  left  in  the  bread, 
cake,  etc.,  which  are  more  or  less  injurious,  but 
they  produce  no  harmful  results  if  used  in  limited 
quantities.     The  exclusive  use  of  baking  powder 
bread  is  impracticable  as  it  turns  against  the 
stomach.     Compare  with  Yeast. 

X 

261.  BAKING  TEMPERATURE.     Gener- 
ally stated  as  385  degrees  Fahr.,  though  bread  may 
safely  be  baked  at  a  somewhat  higher  or  lower 


144       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

temperature,  say  between  300  and  450  degrees 
Kahr.  Many  other  articles  are  baked  at  much 
lower  temperatures. 

262.  BARBECUE.    To  roast  or  broil  whole. 
Or,  an  entertainment  for  which  the  carcass  of 
an  animal,  as  a  hog,  is  roasted  or  broiled  whole. 

263.  BASIL.      One    of    the    standard    pot 
herbs  of  the  mint  family.     Much  used  in  turtle 
soup. 

264.  BASTE.      Sometimes    to    sprinkle,    as 
with  pepper  or  salt;  generally,  to  dash  or  pour  a 
liquid  over  with  a  spoon,  as  in  the  case  of  gravy  or 
stock  in  baking  or  roasting. 

265.  BATTER.     A  thick  liquid  mixture  of 
two  or  more  materials  beaten  together  to  be  vised 
in  cooking  or 'baking. 

266.  BAY  LEAVES.    Leaves  of  the  Cherry 
Laurel.     Much  used  in  soups  and  stews,  and  in 
pickling. 

•267.  BEEF  EXTRACT.  This  .is  really  a 
concentrated  beef  stock,  extracted  by  boiling  beef 
under  pressure.  It  contains  very  little  nutritive 
matter — much  less  than  is  found  in  an  equivalent 


DEFINITIONS.  145 

weight  of  beef.  It  is  of  especial  value  on  account 
of  the  ease  and  speed  with  which  it  may  become 
absorbed  into  the  circulation.  It  holds  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  diet  of  the  sick  and  conva- 
lescent. 

268.  BEEF  JUICE.     The  liquid  remaining 
in  fresh  beef  after  properly  prepared  for  con- 
sumption, the  blood  having  been  removed.     The 
juice  may  be  removed  by  pressure,  or  by  cutting 
into  small  pieces  and  placing  in  cold  water.     The 
juice  having  been  drawn  out,  the  water  is  evapo- 
rated.    Much  of  the  so-called  beef  juice  on  the 
market  is  said  to  be  prepared  from  the  blood  of 
the  slaughtered  animal. 

269.  BEEF  TEA.     This  is  really  unfiltered 
beef  stock.     Instead  of  constantly  skimming. the 
surface  of  the  stock,  the  coagulated  albumen  is 
allowed  to  remain.     It  should  be  made  of  the  best 
meat.     One-half  pound  of  good  beef  tea  may  be 
made  from  one  pound  of  meat  and  one  quart  of 
water.     It  has  little  real  nutritive  value,  but  like 
beef  extract,  is  a  light  stimulant. 

270.  BENCH.     A  molding  table. 

271.  BISK    (or    BISQUE).      A    shell-fish 
soup. 


146       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

272.  BLANCH.     To  scald  vegetables,  nuts, 
etc.,  to  remove  the  outside  skins  or  hulls. 

273.  BLOOD    HEAT.     The    normal    tem- 
perature of  the  human  body,  98  degrees  Fahr. 

274.  BOILING.    The  conversion  of  a  liquid 
into  steam  by  the  application  of  sufficient  heat 
to  cause  ebullition,  or  disturbance  of  the  surface. 
As  applied  to   cooking,   it  is  heating  or   cook- 
ing in  a  boiling  liquid.     (See  ' '  Methods  of  Cook- 
ing.") 

Water  boils  at  212  degrees  Fahr.,  at  the  sea 
level.  It  simmers  when  the  bubbles  break  be- 
neath the  surface  say  185  degrees  Fahr.  It  is 
scalding  hot  at  150  degrees  Fahr.,  or  at  a  tempera- 
ture such  that  the  hand  cannot  be  borne  in  it. 
Salt  water  boils  at  224  degrees  Fahr.  Other  solids, 
as  for  example  sugar,  also  increase  the  boiling  point 
of  water.  A  solution  having  reached  the  boiling 
point,  the  temperature  cannot  be  increased  by 
any  amount  of  additional  heat,  except  under  pres- 
sure, as  would  result  from  boiling  in  a  closed 
vessel. 

Lard  smokes  at  385  degrees  Fahr.,  and  boils  at 
about  600  degrees  Fahr.  Hence,  it  is  evident  that 
grease,  even  if  not  at  the  smoking  or  boiling 


DEFINITIONS.  147 

point,  may  be  much  hotter  than  boiling  water — 
a  fact  that  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  in 
handling  it  and  in  cooking. 

275.  BOUILLON.     A  clear  meat  broth-  or 
soup  in  rich  extractives. 

276.  BRAINS.     The  brains  of  most  slaugh- 
tered animals  are  used  for  food  and  are  considered 
a  luxury.     Calves'  brains  are  considered  the  best, 
although  there  is  but  little  difference,   and  all 
brains  are  generally  sold  under  this  name. 

277.  BRAISING.    Method  of  combining  the 
roasting  and  stewing  of  meat  in  a  closed  vessel 
with  heat  from  both  top  and  bottom,  as  in  a 
Dutch  Oven.     It  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of 
.cooking  tough,  lean  meat.     If  the  kettle  is  placed 
in  a  slow  oven,  it  requires  little  further  atten- 
tion. 

278.  BROILING.     Properly  speaking,  it  is 
cooking  over  red  hot  coals  by  direct  exposure  to 
the  heat  of  an  open  fire,  though  the  term  is  ap- 
plied to  cooking  on  an  iron  plate  interposed  be- 
tween the  fire  and  the  article  cooked.     In  broiling 
the  fire  should  be  clear  and  free  from  smoke. 
Charcoal  is  the  best  fuel  to  use.     It  is  better  to 


148       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

broil  before  a  fire  than  over  it,  in  order  to  save 
the  dripping  grease  and  avoid  the  smoky  flavor 
though  the  smoke  from  the  fat  itself  is  not  as 
objectionable  as  that  from  coal  or  wood. 

279.  CALORIE.  Quantity  of  heat  required 
to  raise  on  kilogram  of  water  one  degree  C.  This 
is  the  equivalent  of  1.54  foot  tons.  Food  values 
are  expressed  in  calories,  and  the  soldiers'  daily 
ration  exceeds  5,000. 

280.  CAPERS.  Unopened  buds  of  a  trail- 
ing shrub  grown  in  Southern  Europe.  Pickled 
and  much  used  in  sauces.  .Caper  sauce  is  fre- 
quently served  with  mutton. 

281 .  CARMEL.   A  sirup  made  from  scorched 
sugar,  used  largely  in  coloring  sauces,  as  well  as 
for  flavoring. 

282.  CARAWAY  SEED.    Seed  of  a  garden 
herb.     Grows  like  the  seed  of  a  carrot  or  parsnip. 
Used  in  various  cakes  and  sweet  crackers,  in  rye 
bread,  and  in  liquors. 

283.  CARBOHYDRATES.    Starches,  sugars 
and  the  fibers  of  plants.     It  is  principally  a  source 
of  energy.     The  surplus  is  stored  in  the  body  as 
fat. 


DEFINITIONS.  149 

284.  CASEIN.     A  proteid  compound  found 
principally  in  milk,  of  which  it  is  the  most  import- 
ant ingredient.     When  coagulated,  it  forms  the 
principal  ingredient  in  'cheese. 

285.  CASINGS.     A  term  applied  to  the  in- 
testines of  all  animals.     They  are  used  to  receive 
sausage,    bologna,    etc.     The   hog's    stomach    is 
actually  used  as  a  receptacle  for  his  head  when  it 
is  converted  in  to  head  cheese. 

286.  CASSIA.     Bark   of   a   tree   similar   to 
Cinanmon.     Cultivated   in   China.     Also    called 
Chinese  Cinnamon. 

287.  CELERY  SALT.    Much  used  in  salads 
and    seasonings.     Prepared    by    mixing    ground 
celery  seed  and  salt  in  the  proportions  in  weight 
of  two  to  one. 

288.  CENTIGRADE.     Graded   to   a   scale 
of  100.     On  the  Centigrade  thermometer  scale, 
the  freezing  point  of  water  is  0,  and  the  boiling 
point  100. 

289.  CHERVIL.    A  garden  herb  much  used 
in  soups. 

290.  CHICORY.     A  perennial  herb  of  the 
aster  family,   with   heads   of  large  bright   blue 


150       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

flowers,  and  dandelion-like  roots.  The  roasted 
and  pulverized  root  is  used  in  adulterating  coffee 
and  as  a  substitute  for  it.  If  grains  of  coffee  con- 
taining chicory  are  dropped  into  cold  -water,  the 
chicory  will  settle  at  once  and  be  followed  by  a 
cloudy  streak. 

291.  CHILI.     Red  sweet  pepper. 

292.  CHIVES.    A  kind  of  green  onion.    Tops 
are  slender  and  pipe-like.     Much  used  in  soups 
and  sauces. 

293.  CHOCOLATE.     It  is  ground  from  the 
cocoa  bean  before  any  of  the  fat  has  been  ex- 
tracted.    It  contains  about  35  per  cent,  of  vege- 
table fat  and  45  per  cent,  of  cane  sugar.     Very 
nourishing. 

294.  CHOWDER.     A  dish  of  stewed  fresh 
or  salt  fish,  or  clams,  with  vegetables  and  crackers 
added. 

295.  CHUTNEY.     An   East    Indian   sweet 
pickle. 

296.  CINNAMON.     The  inner  bark  of  the 
cinnamon,  or  cassia,  tree.     Grown  in  Ceylon  and 
used  as  a  spice. 


DEFINITIONS.  151 

297.  CITRON.     Large   coarse  fruit   of  the 
lemon  family.     Used  in  mince  meat  and  preserves. 

298.  CLOVES.     Flower  buds  of  the  clove 
tree  carefully  picked  and  dried.     Should  always 
be  purchased  whole  as  they  deteriorate  rapidly 
when  ground. 

299.  COCHINEAL.     Coloring  matter  made 
from   the   dried   bodies   of   small   insects   found 
in  the  Southwestern  part  of  the  United  States, 
in  Mexico,  and  in  Central  America.     It  is  harm- 
less. 

300.  COCOA.    Similar  to  chocolate,  but  not 
as  rich.     It  is  ground  from  the  cocoa  bean  after 
much  of  the  fat  has  been  pressed  out. 

301.  COMINA.     An    herb    found    in     the 
Southwestern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in 
Mexico.     Much    used    in    seasoning    soups    and 
stews. 

302.  COMPOUND.     A  substitute  for  lard 
commonly  used  in  bakeries;  of  about  the  follow- 
ing composition,  75  per  cent,  cottonseed  oil,  25 
per  cent.,  beef  stearin.     The  results  obtained  are 
about  the  same  as  when  using  lard,  and  its  use  in 
company  kitchens  is  recommended  for  economy. 


152       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

303.  CONDIMENT.      Something    to    give 
relish  to  the  food  and  gratify  the  taste.     General 
term  for  seasoning. 

304.  CRACKLINGS.      The    crisp    residue 
of  hog  fat  after  the  lard  has  been  tried  out.     It 
may  be  used  in  hash,  or  corn  bread,  but  is  valu- 
able only  in  proportion  as  the  amount  of  fat  that 
is  left  in  it. 

305.  CRACKLING  BREAD.     Corn  bread 
to  which  cracklings  have  been  added. 

306.  CREAM    BREAD.     Bread    baked    in 
superheated  steam,   as  when  moisture  is  artifi- 
cially introduced  into  an  oven,  or  the  bread  baked 
under  inverted  pans,  giving  a  very  thin  crust  and 
a  light  color. 

307.  CROQUETTES.      A    mass    of    finely 
minced  and  seasoned  meat,  fish,  rice  or  potatoes, 
etc.,    made   into  a  ball  or  other  regular  shape, 
rolled  in  cracker  crumbs  and  fried  in  deep  lard 
until  crisp. 

308.  CROUTONS.    Cubes  of  toasted  bread. 
Generally  served  with  soup. 

309.  CRULLERS.     Small  cakes  made  from 
a  sweet  dough  mixture  and  fried  in  deep  lard. 


DEFINITIONS.  153 

They  may  be  made  with  either  baking  powder  or 
yeast. 

310.  CRUMB.     The  soft  inner  part  of  the 
loaf,  as  distinguished  from  the  crust. 

311.  CURRY  POWDER.     A  yellow  powder 
formed  by  a  mixture  of  numerous  hot    pepper 
and  ginger.     Used  as  a  high  seasoning  for  stews, 
etc. 

312.  CUTLETS.     Term  usually  applied  to 
the  rib  cuts  of  pork,  mutton,  lamb,  veal,  venison, 
etc.,  but  not  of  beef. 

313.  DEVILLED.     Highly  seasoned. 

314.  DEVILLED   MEAT.      Cooked   meats 
finely  ground  and  highly  seasoned. 

315.  DOUGH.     Technically,  the  mixture  re- 
sulting from  breaking  up  the  sponge  and  adding 
the  remainder  of  the  flour  and  other  ingredients 
to  be  used  in  making  the  bread.     The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  resulting  mixture  in  any  subse- 
quent stage,  and  sometimes  to  any  mixture  in 
which  flour  forms  the  greater  part. 

Young  or  Green  Dough.  One  not  fully  ma- 
tured, or  not  yet  risen  to  the  maximum  height  to 
which  it  will  prove. 


154       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

Ripe  Dough.     One  that  has  fully  matured. 

Old  or  Rotten  Dough.  One  that  has  been 
allowed  to  stand  longer  than  the  normal  length 
of  time,  so  that  it  begins  to  show  signs  of  sour- 
ness. In  pulling  a  portion  from  the  general  mass, 
it  wil  tear  more  readily  than  usual,  on  account  of 
the  gluten  having  become  weakened  by  the  action 
of  acids  upon  it. 

Sour  Dough.  Generally,  one  containing  a 
large  percentage  of  acid,  on  account  of  being 
allowed  to  ferment  without  the  introduction  of 
yeast.  A  sour  dough  may  also  result  from  un- 
clean utensils,  from  proving  in  too  high  a  tempera- 
ture, from  too  long  fermentation,  or  from  yeast 
containing  acid  germs. 

316.  DOUGH-BREAK.     A    dough    knead- 
ing machine  with  corrugated  rollers. 

317.  DOUGHNUTS.     Small    cakes     made 
from  a  dough  mixture,  and  fried   in   deep   lard. 
They  may  be  made  with  either  baking  powder  or 
yeast. 

318.  DREDGE.    To  sprinkle,  as  with  pepper 
and  salt,  or  rub  in  as  with  flour,  etc. 

319.  DUMPLINGS.    Pieces  of  dough,  some- 


DEFINITIONS.  155 

times  with  fruit  or  vegetables  enclosed,  boiled 
or  baked.  If  served  with  meats  or  stews,  the 
pieces  of  dough  should  be  dropped  into  the  boiling 
hot  beef  stock  or  stew  about  eight  minutes  before 
being  served. 

320.  EGGS.     For  domestic  purposes,    eggs 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place — the  nearer 
to    the    freezing    point    the    better.     However, 
changes  are  constantly  taking  place  within  the 
egg,  producing  a  certain  amount  of  heat,   and 
partly  for  this  reason,  eggs  will  stand  a  tempera- 
ture somewhat  lower  than  freezing. 

The  porous  nature  of  the  shell  facilitates  de- 
composition, and  eggs  dipped  in  varnish,  or  other 
solution  (e.  g.,  silicate  of  soda),  that  will  perma- 
nently fill  the  pores  will  keep  much  longer  than 
others.  Even  "cold  storage  eggs"  should  not  be 
kept  longer  than  six  weeks.  They  are,  however, 
often  kept  for  a  period  of  six  months,  or  even 
more,  but  during  this  time  they  acquire  a  dis- 
tinctly unpleasant  odor  and  flavor.  Eggs  kept 
for  a  long  time  in  cold  storage,  or  decayed  in  any 
way,  are  extremely  injurious. 

321.  EGG  PLANT.     An  egg  shaped  fruit 
with  a  dark,  purple  exterior,  weighing  from  one 


156       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

to  three  pounds.     Raised  in  the  South.     Allied  to 
the  tomato. 

322.  ENTREE.     Small  meats  made  in  var- 
ious guises,  with  sauces  and  garnishings,  between 
courses,  or  at  the 'beginning  of  a  dinner. 

323.  ESTRAGON  or  TARRAGON.     A  gar- 
den herb  used  to  flavor  vinegar,  soups,  sauces,  etc. 

324.  EXTRACTIVES.     The    principal    in- 
gredient of  beef-  extract,  beef  tea,  etc.     They  act 
as  stimulants  and  appetizers,  but  have  little  or  no 
nutritive  value. 

325.  FAHRENHEIT.       The     thermometer 
scale  commonly  used  in  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britian,  on  which  32  marks  the  freezing 
point  of  water,  and  212  the  boiling  point. 

326.  FARINA.     A  fine  flour  or  meal  made 
from  cereal  grains  or  from  the  starch  of  vege- 
tables.    Some  forms  specially  prepared  for  break- 
fast foods. 

327.  FENNEL.     A  garden  plant  much  culti- 
vated in  England.     Grows  wild  in  Florida.     Used 
to  flavor  mackerel  and  salmon. 


DEFINITIONS.  157 

328.  FERMENT.     A  substance  capable  of 
producing  yeast  fermentation. 

329.  FILLET.     A  strip  of  lean  meat  without 
bone. 

330.  FILLET   OF   BEEF.     The  tenderloin 
muscle,  which  lies  beneath  the  backbone  in  the 
hind  quarter.     It  is  easily  detached,  and  is  used 
in  steaks,  and  less  frequently  in  roasts. 

331.  FORCEMEAT.       The    various     mix- 
tures used  to  stuff  fowl,  fish,  tomatoes,  etc.     Some 
force  meats  are   composed  of   minced  veal  and 
bacon  with   herbs  and  seasonings,   or  pounded 
chicken  breaded  with  bread  crumbs,  butter,  yolks 
etc. 

332.  FILLET  OF  FOWL.     The  breast.    . 

333.  FILLET  OF  PORK  OR  MUTTON, 
strip  from  the    shoulder    to    the    hip  on  either 
side  of  the  backbone. 

334.  FILLET    OF  RABBIT.     Fleshy   part 
of  the  back  and  legs. 

335.  FILLET    OF    VEAL.     Pieces    of    the 
A  round,   generally  larded,   stuffed,  boiled,  and 

into  9-  round  shape. 


158       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

336.  FRAPPE.     A  term  given  to  water  ices 
that  have  been  only  partly  frozen.     It  is  an  iced 
drink  and  the  name  should  not  be  given  to  a  thick 
custar  cream. 

337.  FRICASSE.     A   dish   of  meat,   as   of 
fowl,  cut  into  pieces,  fried  until  partially  done  and 
stewed  in  gravy. 

338.  FRIED  CAKES.     Domestic  term  for 
doughnuts  or  crullers.     A  general  term  also  ap- 
plied to  batter  cakes,  potato  cakes,  etc. 

339.  FRITTERS.      A    small    quantity    of 
batter  usually  inclosing  or  containing  some  other 
substances  and  fried  in  deep  lard,  e.  g.,  corn  frit- 
ters, apple  fritters,  etc. 

340.  GARLIC.     A  bulb  like  an  onion,  with 
a  strong  characteristic  smell  and  pungent  taste. 
A  clove  of  garlic  means  one  of  the  natural  sub- 
divisions of  the  bulb.     A  favorite  condiment  of 
the  people  of  Southern  Europe  and  of  the  Orient. 
It  is  much  used  in  company  cooking  to  "bring 
out"  the  flavor  of  other  seasonings. 

341.  GARNISH.     To  decorate  a  dish  with 
something  to  make  it  more  attractive,  such  as 


DEFINITIONS.  159 

bordering  salads  with  capers,  parsley,  beets  •  or 
lemons. 

342.  GELATIN.      Glutinous    material    ob- 
tained from  animal  tissues  after  long  boiling.     It 
readily  dissolves  in  hot  water,  and  forms  a  jelly 
upon  cooling.     While  in  the  liquid  state,  it  may 
be  given  any  flavor  desired.     It  makes  an  excel- 
lent cheap  summer  dessert.     Easily  digested  and 
much  used  in  the  sick-room.     Not  of  great  nutri- 
tive value. 

343.  GEMS   OR   MUFFINS.     Hot   breads 
made  from  white  flour,  graham,  or  cornmeal,  and 
baked  in  gem  pans. 

344.  GERM.     The    earliest    stage    in    the 
growth  of  an  animal  or  plant.     Also  applied  to 
minute   organisms   which   do,   or   do  not,   cause 
disease. 

345.  GIBLETS.     Liver,  gizzard,  heart,  neck, 
feet,  wings,  etc.,  of  poultry  as  used  in  pies,  stews 
and  eauces. 

346.  GINGER.     The    root    of    a    reed-like 
plant.     The  common  brown  root  is  the  natural 
state.     Jamaica  Ginger  is  made  from  the  same 


160       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

root  from  which  the  outer  surface  has  been  re- 
moved. 

347.  GLACE.     Icing. 

348.  GLUCOSE.     A  cheap  sugar  that  will 
not  easily  crystallize,  or  a  cheap  sirup  that  will 
not   crystallize — very  much  like   "Silver   Drip" 
but  much  thicker.     Glucose  is   often  made  by 
treating  cornmeal  with  sulfuric  acid.     It  is  very 
wholesome. 

349.  GLUTEN.     The  muscle  building  ele- 
ment   of    wheat,    rye    and    other    grains.     The 
strength  of  flour  and  the  toughness  and  tenacity 
of  dough  are  determined  by  the  quantity  of  the 
gluten  present. 

350.  GRAHAM    FLOUR.     Unbolted  flour, 
or    white    flour    mixed    with    bran    and    shorts, 
named   from    a    Dr.    Graham    of    Boston,    who 
strongly  advocated  the  use  of  unbolted  flour. 

351.  GRILLED.     Broiled. 

352.  GRITS.     Grains,  as  of  wheat  or  oats, 
coarsely  ground. 

353.  GRUEL.     Liquid  food  made  by  boil- 
ing meal  or  flour  in  water  or  milk. 


DEFINITIONS.  161 

354.  HAM.     Properly    speaking,    it    is    the 
thigh  of  an  animal,  but  the  "ham"  of  the  hog  is 
prepared  from  either  the  thigh  or  shoulder. 

355.  HAM  BUTTS.     Part  of  the  hog  cor- 
responding very  closely  to  the  chuck  of  the  beef. 
It  is  a  portion  of  the  shoulder  directly  above  that 
used  in  preparing  ' '  shoulder  hams. ' ' 

356.  HOMINY.     Cracked  Indian  corn  from 
which  the  outer  husk  has  been  removed. 

357.  HOPS  are  used  in  the  preparation  of 
yeast,  not  as  a  food  for  the  yeast  plant,  but  to 
prevent  sourness. 

358.  ICE.     A  general  term  frequently  ap- 
plied to  frozen  creams,  custards,  and  other  des- 
serts, as  well  as  to  water  ices.     The  latter  are 
fruit  juices  sweetened  with  sugar  sirup  and  stirred 
while  freezing. 

359.  ICING.     Same  as  frosting.     Generally 
speaking,  made  of  the  whites  of  eggs,  with  sugar 
and  suitable  flavoring,  as  lemon,  vanilla,  etc. 

360.  JAM.     A  preserve  of  fruit  boiled  with 
sugar  and  water. 


162       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

361.  JELLY.     The  juice  of  fruits  or  meats 
boiled  to  an  elastic  consistence.     In  making  fruit 
jellies,  sugar  and  suitable  flavor  is  added. 

362.  KIDNEYS  from  all   slaughtered  ani- 
mals are  used  in  stews,  etc.     There  is  not  any 
great  demand  for  them   in   American  .  markets, 
but  great  quantities  are  shipped  abroad.     Pigs' 
kidneys  are  considered  the  best. 

363.  LAMB    CHOPS.     The    short    ribs    of 
lamb,  with  the  attached  flesh. 

364.  LARD.     The  fat  of  swine.     It  is  fre- 
quently adulterated  by  the  addition  of  a  large 
proportion   of   cottonseed   oil.     Pure   cottonseed 
oil,  to  which  stearin  is  added,  making  a  fairly  good 
substitute.     In  addition,  lard  and  cottonseed  oil 
compounds  are  frequently  further  adulterated  by 
the  addition  of  water,  the  presence  of  which  is 
noted   by   the    crackling   and    sputtering   when 
placed  in  the  spider,  or  when  a  small  lump  is 
dropped  into  the  fire. 

Watered  lard  is  unnaturally  white.  Good  firm 
lard  is  the  best  for  pastries,  although  refined  oil 
and  "lard  compounds"  will  do  for  most  purposes. 


DEFINITIONS.  163 

365.  LARD,    TO.     To  lard,   means   to   in- 
troduce thin  pieces  of  pork,  ham  or  bacon,  into 
meats  deficient  in  fat,  to  improve  their  flavor. 

366.  LEAF    LARD.     This   consists   of   the 
leaves  of  fat  lining  the  back  of  the  hog.     -It  may 
be  torn  out  without  cutting.     It  is  the  best  quality 
of  lard  and  may  be  used  in  many  instances  with- 
out rendering,  if  desired.     The  next  best  quality 
of  lard  is  that  which  is  found  connected  with  the 
intestines  called  ''intestinal  lard,"  and  the  third 
quality  comes  from  the  back  of  the  hog. 

367.  LEAVEN.     A  piece  of  old  dough  used 
with  new  dough  for  the  purpose  of  starting  fer- 
mentation. 

368.  LEEK.     A   species   of  onion,  but  the 
leaves  are  flat  instead  of  round.     Much  used  in 
soups. 

369.  LENTILS.     A  variety  of  bean  used  in 
making  soups. 

370.  LIGHTS.     The'  lungs   of    slaughtered 
animals.     Used  to  some  extent  in  cheap  sausages. 

371.  LIVER.     Calves'  liver  is  the  best  of 


164       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

all  slaughtered  animals,  and  is  considered  a  deli- 
cacy when  served  with  bacon,  in  hotels  and 
restaurants.  Beef  liver  is  the  next  best;  then 
pig's  liver.  The  liver  of  mutton  is  very  dry  and 
tasteless. 

372.  MACARONI.    First  prepared  in  Italy. 
A  strong  flour  is  made  into  a  stiff  dough,  pressed 
into  long  tubes,  and  dried  in  the  sun,  or  by  slow 
heat.     Spaghetti  is  of  the  same  material,  but  is 
pressed  into  the  form  of  long  cords.     Vermicelli  is 
the  same  as  fine  cord  spaghetti.     Noodles  are  of 
about  the  same  consistence. 

373.  MACE.     The  inner  coating  of  the  nut- 
meg.    It  is  a  good  flavoring  for  meats  and  cream 
soups,  puddings  and  sweets. 

374.  MALT.     Barley   or   other   grain   that 
has  been  allowed  to  sprout,  then  dried  at  a  low 
temperature    and    coarsely    ground.     Useful    in 
making  yeast,  as  it  furnishes  food  for  the  yeast 
plant  in  the  best  form  possible. 

375.  MARJORAM.     A  mint-like  plant,  par- 
ticularly aromatic  and  fragrant.     Much  used  in 
seasonings. 


DEFINITIONS.  165 

376.  MARROW.     The  material  filling  the 
hollow  of  bones.     The  beef  marrow  found  in  the 
shin  bone  of  cattle  is  an  excellent  fat.     In  packing 
houses,  it  is  extracted  and  sold  on  the  market  for 
shortening. 

377.  MAYONNAISE.     A  sauce  for  salads. 
Prepared  from  the  yolk  of  eggs,  with  mustard, 
olive  oil,  lemon,  salt,  etc.,  added. 

378.  MERINGUE.     A  kind  of  icing  made 
from  the  whites  of  eggs,  with  sugar  sprinkled  over 
the  top  when  ready  for  baking.     The  sugar  being 
next  to  the  heat,  quickly  turns  a  delicate  brown 
and  adds  a  rich  appearance  to  the  pie  or  other 
pastry  in  which  used. 

379.  MINT.     An    aromatic    herb    used    in 
cooking.     Mint    Sauce.     Chopped    green    mint, 
vinegar  and  sugar  mixed.     Served  with  mutton, 
either  hot  or  cold. 

380.  MOUSSE.      Froth.      Something   light 
and  spongy.     Term  applied  both  to  meat  prepa- 
rations and  ice  cream. 

381.  MULLIGATAWNY.    Curry  soup  (com- 
bination of  two  words  from  a  foreign  language, 
meaning  pepper  water.) 


166       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

382.  MUSTARD.     Flour    made    of    mixed 
black  and  white  mustard  seed,  deprived  of  its  oil 
and  toned  down  with  more  or  less  meal. 

383.  NOODLES.     Practically  the  same  ma- 
terial as  macaroni  and  spaghetti.      (See  Par.  372.) 

384.  NASTURTIUM.     Well  known  garden 
plant.     The  green  seeds  are  pickled  as  a  substitute 
for  capers. 

385.  NUTMEG.     Kernel  of  the  fruit  of  the 
nutmeg  tree.     Much   used  in   desserts,   etc.     A 
native  of  the  Moluccas. 

386.  OLEOMARGARIN.  •  A  term  adopted 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  designate 
all  kinds  of  artificial  butter. 

387.  OKRA.     A  vegetable  plant  whose  green 
pods  are  often  used  in  soups,  stews,  etc.     Also 
served  as  a  vegetable. 

388.  OLEIN.     Olein  is  that  portion  of  oil 
or  fat  which  gives  it  fluidity.     Fat  contains  more 
of  it  than  lard,  and  lard  more  than  suet.     Contrast 
with  stearin. 

389.  OREGANO.     An  herb  much  used  in 
seasoning  soups  and  stews. 


DEFINITIONS.  167 

390.  OSEILLE    OR    SORREL.     A    green 
herb  used  as  greens  and  in  soup. 

391.  OVEN     COUNT.     The     "count"     of 
an  oven  is  determined  by  the  number  of  seconds 
that  the  arm  and  hand,  while  at  a  normal  tempera- 
ture, may  be  introduced  to  their  full  extent,  into 
the  oven  chamber  and  held  continuously   with- 
out withdrawal.     It  is  reliable  only  in  the  case  of 
a  dry  oven,  as  moisture  has  a  tendency  to  scald 
the  flesh  and  force  a  premature  withdrawal.     In 
a  perfectly  dry  oven,  twelve  counts  (seconds)  is 
about  right  for  baking  in  a  brick  or  earthen  oven. 
If  even  a  small  amount  of  moisture  were  present, 
the  same  temperature  of  the  oven  would  be  in- 
dicated by  a  smaller  count,  say  eight  or  six. 

To  count  seconds,  repeat  moderately  slowly: 
0-1,000,  1-1,000,  2-1,000,  and  the  small  numbers 
indicated  will  correspond  very  closely  with  the 
number  of  seconds. 

392.  OVEN,    QUICK.     One    heated    to    a 
higher  temperature  than  normal,   say  about  385 
degrees    Fahr.     An    oven    of    less    than    twelve 
counts. 

393.  OVEN,    SLOW.     One   heated   to   less 
than  the  normal  temperature  for  baking,  say  be- 


168       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

low  385  degrees  Fahr.     An  oven  of  more  than 
about  fifteen  counts. 

394.  OYSTER  PLANT.    (Salsify.)    A  white 
root  with  the  taste  of  an  oyster.     Best  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground.     It  is  generally  left  in  the  ground  over 
winter. 

395.  PANCREAS.     A  gland  from  near  the 
stomach  of  slaughtered  animals,  used  as  a  sweet- 
bread. 

396.  PARBOIL.     To  cook  partly   by   boil- 
ing. 

397.  PARSLEY.     A  green  herb  much  used 
for  garnishing  and  in  flavoring  soups,  stews,  cro- 
quettes, etc. 

398.  PARSNIPS.     A  creamy  white  root  re- 
sembling the   carrot  in  shape.     Much  used  in 
stews  and  frequently  served  as  a  vegetable.    Like 
the  oyster  plant,  it  is  considered  best  when  left 
in  the  ground  over  winter. 

399.  PATTIES.     There    are    two    distinct 
kinds  of  patties.     First,  a  puff  paste  shell  baked 
and  afterward  filled.    Second,  small  pies  made  by 
lining  patty  pans  with  short  paste,  filling  with 


DEFINITIONS.  169 

oysters,  chicken,  etc.,  covered  with  a  top  crust 
and  baked. 

400.  PEPPER.     The  white  pepper  is  made 
from  the  ripe  seeds,  and  the  black  pepper  from 
seeds  picked  before  they  are  ripe.     White  pepper 
is  much  better  for  cooking  purposes,  as  it  does 
not   show   dark   specks.     Black   pepper   is   pre- 
ferred for  flavoring,  especially  in  dishes  that  are 
to  be  strained  afterwards.     Pepper  is  much  sub- 
ject to  adulteration  and  whole  pepper  should  be 
purchased  and  ground  at  home. 

401.  PEPPER,    CAYENNE.     Red    pepper 
pods  and  seeds  ground.     Often  adulterated  with 
yellow  cornmeal,  mustard  hulls,  etc. 

402.  PICCALILLI.     The    same    as    chow- 
chow.     Green  tomatoes,  onions,  cucumbers,  cel- 
ery, etc.,  finely  chopped  with  vinegar  added  and 
finely  seasoned. 

403.  PISTACHIO.      A    pale    greenish    nut 
resembling  the  almond.     Much  used  as  a  color- 
ing matter  for  ice  creams  and  confections.     It 
has  a  fine  flavor.     A  deeper  green  is  obtained  by 
the  addition  of  spinach. 

404.  POACH.     To  cook  in  a  small  amount 


170       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

of  water  or  milk.     A  term  generally  applied  to 
eggs. 

405.  PORRIDGE.     A  gruel. 

406.  PROTEIN.    The  muscle  producing  com- 
pound found  in  meats,  eggs,  cereals,  etc. 

407.  PROVING.     The  gradual  rising  or  ex- 
pansion of  a  dough  or  sponge,  due  to  the  formation 
of  carbonic  gas  incident  to  the  growth  of  the  yeast 
plant. 

408.  PYROMETER.     An    instrument    for 
measuring  high  degrees  of  heat,  usually  operated 
by  the  expansion  or  contraction  of  a  metal  spring. 
In  our  experience,  they  are  not  as  accurate  as  the 
mercurial  thermometers,  and  easily  get    out    of 
order. 

409.  RAGOUT.     A   highly   seasoned  meat 
stew.     Liquor  is  frequently  added. 

410.  RENDERING.     The  process  of  sepa- 
rating the  lard,  or  beef  fat,  from  the  tissue  in  which 
it  is  found. 

411.  ROASTING.     Cooking  before  an  open 
fire.     Term  also  applied  to  baking  in  a  dry  oven 

chamber,  with  free  circulation.     Certain  flavors 
are  developed  in  roasting  before  an  open  fire  that 


DEFINITIONS.  171 

are  closely  approximated  in  a  well-ventilated  oven, 
but  not  approached  in  a  closed  oven. 

412.  SACCHARIN.      A   white,    sweetening 
substance  (powder)  obtained  from  coal  tar  and 
said  to  possess  300  times  the  sweetening  power  of 
sugar.     It  possesses  certain   antiseptic   qualities 
and  is  a  powerful  anti-ferment.     It  contains  no 
nutriment  and  is  little  used  as  a  seasoning.     Form- 
erly used  in  tablet  form  with  the  Army  standard 
emergency  ration  for  sweetening  coffee. 

413.  SAFFRON.     The  petals  of  a  flower- 
ing plant.     Made  into  a  tea  and  added  to  the 
dough,  or  stew,  etc. 

414.  SAGE.     A    plant    with    grayish    green 
leaves  and  much  used  in  seasoning  meats  and 
stews. 

415.  SAGO.     It  is  made  from  the  pith  of 
a  palm  tree  which  grows  in  the  East  Indies.     It 
is  nearly  pure  starch  and  has  many  imitations 
on  the  market,  but  the  form  of  the  grain  of  the 
latter  disappears  in  cooking.     It  is  cooked  in  the 
same  way  as  tapioca  and  is  also  much  used  in 
soups. 

416.  SALSIFY.     See  Par.  394. 


172       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

417.  SAUSAGE.     There   are   from   fifty  to 
sixty  different  kinds  of  sausage  put  up  in  the 
packing   houses,   the   components,    quality    and 
seasoning  differing  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
foreign   and   domestic   trade.     In  the  course  of 
preparation,  they  are  generally  subjected  to  the 
smoke  from  hickory  or  other  hard    wood,    and 
then  cooked  in  vats  of  water,  at  a  temperature  of 
about  160  degrees,  from  ten  minutes  for  frank- 
furters to  three  hours  for  bung  sausages. 

Summer  sausages  are  first  smoked  and  then 
placed  in  a  drying  temperature  for  about  three 
months.  The  material  put  into  suasages  com- 
pares favorably  with  that  put  on  the  market  in 
other  forms. 

Bull  meat  is  used  to  considerable  extent,  as  it 
takes  up  more  moisture  than  other  meats. 

The  best  pork  sausage  contains  no  beef. 

Liver  sausage  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  con- 
tains lungs  (lights)  as  well  as  liver  and  other  in- 
gredients not  put  into  better  grades. 

.  A  good  quality  may  contain  from  one-third 
to  one-half  of  beef,  and  for  Army  Sausage,  this  is 
an  ordinary  proportion. 

418.  SAUTE.     To    fry    in    a    shallow    pan 


DEFINITIONS,  173 

with  but  little  fat — first  on  one  side  and  then  on 
the  other. 

419.  SCALD.     As  applied  to  flour,  potatoes, 
etc.,  to  submerge  or  wet  with  water  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  160  degrees  Fahr.,  or  more — sufficiently 
hot  to  dissolve  the  bands  of  the  starch  cells  and 
expose  the  individual  grains  composing  it,  gener- 
ally to  the  action  of  the  yeast  plant. 

To  scald  utensils,  etc.,  to*dash  over  with  boil- 
ing hot  water. 

420.  SCALLOP.     A  mollusk  similar  to  an 
oyster.     The  shell  is  corrugated  and  radiates  from 
the  center.     Scalloped  dishes.    Dishes  made  in  the 
form  of  a  scallop  shell. 

421.  SCALLOPED     OYSTERS.       Oysters 
baked  in  scalloped  dishes,  or  rolled  in  cracker  or 
bread  crumbs  and  baked. 

422.  SHERBERT.    A  water  ice  made  from 
the  juice  of  fruit,   diluted,   sweetened,   flavored 
and  frozen.     Liquors  are  sometimes  added. 

423.  SHORTENING.     Lard,   butter,   suet, 
marrow,  etc.     Mixed  in  pastries  to  make  them 
more  friable  and  more  easy  to  crumble. 

424.  SLAW.     Sliced  cabbage  with  vinegar. 


174       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

salt  and  pepper — served  cooked,    (hot  or  cold) 
or  raw. 

425.  SODA.     A   white,    alkaline   compound 
(sodium  bicarbonate)  consisting  of  white  powder, 
or    dry    transparent    crystals.     Sometimes    used 
to  neutralize  acids  found  in  sour  doughs;  also 
used  to  manufacture  baking  powder,  or  alone  in 
the  preparation  of  certain  mixtures  in  the  kitchen. 

426.  SOUFFLE.     A    side    dish    served    hot 
from  the  oven,  made  of  beaten  eggs,  flour,  etc. 

427.  SOY.     A  bottled  sauce  obtained  from 
China  and  India.     Composition  uncertain. 

428.  SPAGHETTI.     See  Par.  372. 

429.  SPARE  RIBS.     Ribs  of  pork  with  but 
little  flesh  attached. 

430.  SPONGE.     A    thick    batter,    or    soft 
dough,  made  from  flour,  water  and  yeast.     It  is 
the  first  step  in  the  process  of  bread  making.     A 
sponge  is  said  to  be  green  or  young  before  it  has 
fully  matured;  ripe  when  it  has  matured,  and  is 
ready  to  be  broken  up  preparatory  to  making  the 
dough;  and  old,  or  rotten,  when  it  has  passed  the 
ripe  stage,  and  having  risen  and  fallen  more  than 


DEFINITIONS.  175 

once,  probably  contains  a  relatively  high  percent- 
age of  acid,  making  it  sour. 

431.  STALE     BREAD.     Bread    in    which 
all  free  moisture  has  so  combined  with  the  crumb 
as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  dryness.     This 
takes  place  when  the  bread  is  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  hours  old. 

432.  STARCH.     A   white',    odorless,    taste- 
less, flour-like  compound,  insoluble  in  cold  water, 
alcohol  and  other  liquids.     Found  in  all  grains 
and  seeds  of  plants,  with  but  few  exceptions.     It 
is  readily  transformed  into  sugar  compounds. 

433.  STEARIN.     That  portion  of  fats,  lard, 
suet,  etc.,  that  gives  it  solidity. 

434.  STERILIZE.     To  destroy  harmless  or 
disease  bearing  bacteria.     Generally  accomplished 
in  the   utensils   used  in  the   kitchen  by  the  use 
of  boiling  hot  water  to  which  lye  is  sometimes 
added.     The  sterlizing  of  all  utensils  used  in  hand- 
ling yeasts  and  doughs  is  absolutely  necessary,  in 
order  to  prevent  souring. 

435.  STOCK.     The  liquid  or  jelly  obtained 
by  boiling  meat,  bones,  etc.,  for  several  hours,  in 
water.     It  is  the  basis  of  all  good  soups. 


176       THE  MESS  OFFICER'S  ASSISTANT. 

436.  SUCCOTASH.     Green  corn  and  beans 
boiled  together. 

437.  SUET.     The  large  folds  of  fat  found 
attached  to  the  inner  walls  of  the  hind  quarter 
of  beef. 

438.  SWEETBREADS.    The  thymus  gland 
(found  in  the  neck  of  slaughtered  animals)  and  the 
pancreas  (found  near  the  stomach).     They  have 
very  little  natural  flavor,   but  are  very  tender 
and  considered  a  delicacy.     Those  from  the  calf 
are  best,  next  best  from  the  beef,  sheep  and  hog  in 
the  order  named. 

439.  TALLOW.     Properly  speaking,  it  is  the 
fat  of  beef,  sheep  or  other  animals,  from  which  a 
portion  of  the  oil  has  been  extracted  making  it 
harder  than  the  natural  fat. 

440.  TAPIOCA.    A  starch  extracted  from  a 
South  American  plant.    Used  in  puddings.     Very 
similar  to  sago  and  arrow  root. 

441.  THYME.     A  herb  used  in  seasoning. 

442.  THYMUS  GLAND.     A  gland  of  the 
neck  of  slaughtered  animals  used  as  sweet  bread. 

443.  TRIPE.     A  term  applied  to  the  stom- 
ach of  the  beef,  after  being  cleaned  and  boiled. 


DEFINITIONS.  177 

It  has  but  little  flavor,  but  is  considered  by  many 
as  a  very  valuable  food.  It  is  very  easily  di- 
gested, v 

444.  VINEGAR.    The  sour  liquid  formed  by 
the  spontaneous  acetic  fermentation,  or  artificial 
oxidation  of  beer,  wine,  cider,  etc. 

445.  YEAST.     Yeast  grows  in  small  spores 
that  reproduce  themselves  every  four  or  five  hours. 
The  spore  is  found  anywhere,  floating  about  in  the 
air,  and  wherever  the  proper  conditions  of  food, 
moisture  and  warmth  are  found,  it  grows  spon- 
taneously.   While  in  a  dry  state  it  is  unaffected 
by  the  ordinary  temperatures,  though  freezing,  or 
a  temperature  above  160  degrees  Fahr.,  will  kill  it 
in  the  liquid  state.     While  it ' '  works ' '  or  grows,  it 
evolves  a  carbonic  gas  which  gives  to  the  dough  a 
cellular    structure.     While    proving,    the    dough 
should  be  kept  in  an  even  temperature  of  about  80 
degrees,  and  this  should  be  about  the  average  tem- 
perature of  the  dough  ingredients  when  mixed  to- 
gether. 


TN  D'E  X . 


PARAGRAPH 

Adulteration  of  coffee 127 

Adulteration  of  lard 205 

Adulteration  of  olive  oil 188 

Aerated  bread 251 

Albuminoids 1 

Albumen 252 

Allspice 253 

Ambergris 254 

Aniline 255 

Aniseed 256 

Annatto 257 

Arrow  root 258 

Articles,  size  of,  to  cook 43 

Artificial  butter 207,  386 

Bacon 78,  140 

Bacteria 212 

Bakery  dividend 92 

Baking 259 

Baking  powder 93 — 95,  260 

Baking  temperature 261 

Balanced  diet 22 

Barbecue 262 

Basil 263 

Baste 264 

Batter 265 

Bay  leaves 266 

Bean  component 97 — 100 

Beans,  cooking  of 62,  98 

Beef  cheese 75 

Beef  extract 267 

Beef  juice 268 

179 


180  INDEX. 


Beef  stock 40 

Beef,  substitutes  for 73 

Beef  tea 269 

Beets 110 

Bench 270 

Bisk 271 

Blanch 272 

Blood  heat 273 

Body,  composition  of 23 

Boiled  milk 164 

Boiled  beef 42 

Boiling 274 

Bouillon 275 

Brain  foods 32,  33 

Brains 276 

Braising *277 

Bread  and  rolls 88 

Bread,  flour,  etc 83 — 92 

Breakfast  foods 32 

Broiling 278 

Browned  potatoes 105-e 

Bull  meat 417 

Bung  sausages 41V 

Butter 152,  192 

Buttermilk 172 

Cabbage 108 

Calorie 279 

Canned  butter 195 

Canned  goods,  mold  in 224 

Canning 220 

Capers 280 

Caramels 281 

Caraway  seed 282 

Carbohydrates 283 

Carbohyrdates,  fuel  value 34 

Carbohydrates,  properties  of 27 

Carrots 110,  141 

Casein ..  284 


INDEX.  181 

Casings 285 

Cassia 286 

Celery  salt 287 

Centigrade '. 288 

Cheese 173 — 182 

Cheesed  potatoes 105-g 

Chef 70 

Chemical  preservatives 218 

Chervil 289 

Chicory 290 

Chile 291 

Chili  beans 100-e 

Chili  con  carne 100-e 

Chives.: 292 

Chocolate 293 

Chowder 294 

Chutney '. 295 

Cinnamon 296 

Citron '. 297 

Cloves 298 

Cochineal 300 

Cocoa 299 

Coffee  component 121 — 127 

Coffee,  substitutes 127 

Cold,  a  preservative 47,  212 

Cold  storage * 215 

Comina 301 

Composition  of  body 23 

Compound 302 

Concentrated  foods 32 

Condensed  milk 167 

Condiments '. 30,   135,  303 

Cooking,  effect  of 51 

Cooking,  elementary  principles 36 

Cooking,  objects  of 36 — 70 

Cornmeal 91 

Cottage  cheese 178 

Cottonseed  oil 189-190 

Crackling  bread 305 


182  INDEX. 

Cracklings 304 

Cream 170 

Cream  bread 306 

Cream  cheese 175 

Creamed  potatoes 105-i 

Croquettes 75-307 

Croutons 308 

Crullers 309 

Crumb 310 

Crumbs 86 

Curry  powder 311 

Cutlets 312 

Deep  lard  frying 64-68 

Definitions 251-445 

Desiccated  milk 165 

Desserts 156 

Devilled 313 

Devilled  meat 314 

Diet,  balanced 22 

Diet,  one-sided 22 

Disease  germs  in  milk 161 

Dividend,  bakery 92 

Double  cream 171 

Dough , 315 

Dough-break 316 

Doughnuts 317 

Dredge 318 

Dried  fruits 116-120 

Dried  peas 100-b 

Dried  sweet  corn 100-g 

Dried  vegetable  component 97-100 

Dryness,  a  preservative 212,  214 

Dumplings 319 

Edam  cheese 180 

Eggs 320 

Egg  plant 321 

Elementary  principles  of  cooking 37  70 


INDEX.  183 


Entree '. %. 322 

Estragon 323 

Extractives 25,  324 

Extracts  from  lectures  by  the  author 232-250 

Evaporated  cream 166 

Evaporated  fruits  116-120 

Evaporated  milk '. 133,   166 

Fahrenheit 325 

Farina 326 

Fats,  composition  of 183 

Fats,  fuel  value  of 34 

Fats,  properties  of 26 

Fennel 327 

Ferment 328 

Filled  cheese 177 

Fillet 329 

Fillet  of  beef 330 

Fillet  of  fowl 332 

Fillet  of  pork 333 

Fillet  of  rabbit 334 

Fillet  of  veal 335 

Fireless  cooker 100-a 

Flavors 50-53,   147 

Flour,  economy  in  use  of 84 

Food  definition  of 23 

Foods,  function  of 31 

Food  values,  table  of 35 

Forcemeat 331 

Frankfurters 417 

Frappe 336 

Fresh  vegetables 101-114 

Fresh  water 57 

French  fried  potatoes 105-b 

Fricasse '. 337 

Fried  cakes 338 

Fritters 339 

Fruit  butter 120 

Fruit  flavors....  ..   116 


184  INDEX. 


Fruits 37 

Frying,  general  principles 64-69 

Fuel  values 34-35 

Full  cream  cheese 174 

Garlic 143,  340 

Garnish 341 

Garrison  ration,  general  remarks 71 

Gelatin 342 

Gelatinoids 2 

Gems 343 

Germ 344 

German  boiled  potatoes 105-e 

German  fried  potatoes 105-d 

Giblets 345 

Ginger 146,  346 

Glace 347 

Glucose 348 

Gluten 349 

Graham  flour ~ 350 

Green  fruits 117 

Grilled 351 

Grits 352 

Gruel 353 

Ham 140,  354 

Hamburg  steaks 75 

Ham  butts 355 

Hard  bread 90 

Hard  water '..     56 

Hashed  potatoes 105-f 

History  of  the  ration 1-12 

Herbs 145 

Hominy 100-h,  356 

Hops 357 

Ice 358 

Icing 359 

Issue  beans....  ...  100-a 


INDEX.  185 

Jam , 360 

Jelly 361 

Jelly,  mold  in : 222 

Kettle  rendered  lard 204 

Kidney  beans 100-d 

Kidneys 362 

Ladled  butter 194 

Lamb  chops 363 

Lard  and  lard  compounds 149-151 

Lard 198-211,  364 

Lard  compounds 206 

Lard,  to _ 365 

Lean  meat 77 

Leaf  lard 201,  366 

Leaven 367 

Lectures,  extracts  from 232-250 

Leek 368 

Lentils 369 

Lettuce Ill 

Lima  beans 100-c 

Limburger  cheese 179 

Lights 370 

Liver 371 

Liver  sausage 417 

Lyonnaise  potatoes 105-h 

Macaroni 372 

Mace 373 

Malt 374 

Majoram 375 

Marrow 376 

Mayonnaise 377 

Meat  cutting 74 

Meat,  general  remarks 72-83 

Meringue 378 

Methods  of  cooking 39 

Meats,  preservation  of. 76 


186  INDEX. 


Meats,  special  uses 75 

Milk 158-172 

Milk  component 133,  314 

Milk  toast 87 

Mineral  matters 28 

Mint 379 

Molds 212,  213,  221—231 

Mold  growth,  effects  of 226 

Mold,  prevention  of 231 

Mousse 380 

Muffins 343 

Mulligatawny 381 

Mustard....  ....144,  382 


Nasturtium 384 

Neutral  lard 177,  200 

Non-poisonous  preservatives 219 

Noodle  lard 202 

Noodles 383 

Nutmeg 385 

Nutrition,  principles  of 20 


Oils,  composition  of. 183 

Okra •....  387 

Qlein 183-184,  388 

Olein 388 

Oleomargarine 152,   197,  38G 

Olive  oil 188 

One-sided  diet 22 

Onions... 101,   111,   141 

Oregano 389 

Oseille 390 

Oven  counts 391 

Oven,  quick 392 

Oven,  slow 393 

Oysters,  frying 67 

Oyster  plant 394 


INDEX.  187 


Pan  cakes : 89 

Pancreas 395 

Parsley 397 

Parboil 396 

Parsnips 109,  141,  398 

Pasteurized  cream. 192 

Pasteurized  milk 163 

Patties 379 

Peas : 99 

Pepper 142,  400 

Piccalilli 402 

Pistachio 403 

Pits,  storage  in , 216 

Poach 404 

Pork  sausage 417 

Porridge 405 

Potato  component 101, -114 

Potpies 41 

Powdered  milk 134,  165 

Predigested  foods 32 

Preservation  of  foods 212-231 

Preservation  of  meats 76 

Prevention  of  mold 231 

Prevention  of  waste 81 

Prime  steam  lard 203 

Principles  of  nutrition 20 

Protein 25,  34,  406 

Proving '. 407 

Prune  component 97-100 

Pyrometer 408 

Radishes 1   1 

Ragout 409 

Ration  balanced 21 

Ration,  emegency 15 

Ration,  field 16 

Ration,  garrison '. 18 

Ration,  history  of. 1-12 

Ration,  haversack  or  reserve....  17 


188  INDEX. 

Ration,  inarching 33 

Ration,  kinds  of 13-18 

Ration,  travel 14 

Refuse 29,  240 

Rendering 410 

Renovated  butter 196 

Rice 100-f 

Ripened  fruits 117 

Roasting 39,  411 

Roquefort  cheese 181 

Saccharin 412 

Saffron 413 

Sage 414 

Sago 415 

Salads 155 

Salsify 109,   141,  395,  416 

Salt 139 

Salt  a  preservative 219-b 

Saratoga  chips 105-a 

Sauce  for  desserts 157 

Sausage 75,  417 

Sausage,  mold  in 223 

Saute 418 

Sauteing 69 

Scald 419 

Scallop 420 

Scalloped  oysters 421 

Seasoning,  importance  of 70 

Seasoning 135 

Separator  milk 168 

Shallow  lard  frying 69 

Sherbert 422 

Shortening 423 

Sirup 130,  154 

Size  of  articles  to  cook 43 

Skimmed  milk 168 

Slaw „ 424 

Soda ...  425 


INDEX.  189 


Soft  water 55 

Sorrel 390 

Souffle 426 

Soup 82 

Soup  stock 80 

Soy 427 

Spaghetti 428 

Spare  ribs 429 

Spices 146 

Spices,  2  preservatives 219-d 

Sponge 430 

Stale  bread 431 

Starch " 432 

Stearin 183-184,  433 

Sterilize 434 

Sterilized  milk 169 

Stews 41 

Stock 435 

Storage  in  pits 216 

Succotash 436 

Suet 150,  437 

Sugar 130     132 

Sugar,  a  preservative *219-a 

Summer  sausage 417 

Sweetbread 395,  438,  442 

Swiss  cheese 176 

Table  of  food  values 35 

Tallow 187,  441 

Tapioca 440 

Tea 128 

Texture  of  bread,  etc 44 

Thyme ." 441 

Thymus  gland 442 

Tomatoes 101,  107,  141 

Tripe 443 

Tuberculosis 160 

Turnips....,..,..,.,..,, 110 


190  INDEX. 


Vegetables,  fresh 101-114 

Vegetables,  preservation  of 48 

Vinegar 444 

Vinegar,  a  preservative 219-c 

Vinegar,  properties  of 148 

Waste 29,  81 

Water  boils,  when 62 

Water,  characteristics  of 24 

Water,  necessity  of  in  cooking 54 

Water,  properties  of 54  63 

Yeast 94-96.  445 


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